Table 1.
Selected characteristics, PTSD prevalence, and risk of bias of the included studies.
| Reference | Country | Sample selection | Type of pain | Assessment instrument | n (% women) | PTSD prevalence (%) | Trauma exposure | Risk of bias score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Andersen et al. (16) | Finland and Denmark | Multidisciplinary pain center | Mixed chronic pain (CP) | HTQ | 304 (60.5) | 23.0 | 84% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 5 |
| Cohen et al. (29) | Israel | Rheumatology clinic | Fibromyalgia (FM) | SCID | 77 (51.9) | 57.0 | Mean exposure 5.7 events | 4 |
| de Leeuw et al. (30) | United States | Orofacial pain center | Orofacial pain | PCL-C | 1,478 (86.4) | 15.0 | NA | 4 |
| de Leeuw et al. (31) | United States | Orofacial pain center | TTH or migraine | PCL-C | 80 (78.8) | 16.3 | 64% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 3 |
| Gerhardt et al. (32) | Germany | General population | Low back pain | SCID | 110 (57.3) | 0.0 | NA | 6 |
| Ho et al. (33) | China | CP clinic | Mixed CP | SCID | 89 (56,2) | 4.5 | NA | 6 |
| Häuser et al. (34) | Germany | General population | Widespread pain | PDS | 147 (52) | 10.9 | 49% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 5 |
| Häuser et al. (14) | Germany | General population | FM | PDS | 395 (93.9) | 45.3 | 74.5% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 7 |
| Häuser et al. (35) | Germany and United States | Rheumatology clinic/pain medicine center | FM | PDS | 142 (95.8) | 33.8 | 60.3% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 6 |
| Ifergane et al. (36) | Israel | Headache clinic | Migraine | CAPS | 92 (77.2) | 6.5 | 16.3% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 6 |
| Juang et al. (37) | Taiwan | Headache clinic | CDH | MINI | 261 (80) | 2.0 | NA | 6 |
| Karsikaya et al. (38) | Turkey | Neurology clinic | Migraine | SCID | 60 (73,3) | 28.3 | 63.3% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 7 |
| Peterlin et al. (39) | United States | Headache center | Migraine | PCL-C | 593 (92) | 25.0 | 81.2% reported > 1 sign. stressor | 6 |
| Proctor et al. (40) | United States | Neurodiagnostic clinic | Pain related to industrial injuries | CAAPE | 216 (51.9) | 29.2 | NA | 5 |
| Radat et al. (41) | France | Neurological and pain centers | Neuropathic pain | MINI | 182 (52.2) | 3.3 | NA | 7 |
| Raphael et al. (42) | United States | General population | FM | PCL-C | 1,312 (100) | 4.8 | All participants in vicinity of New York at 9/11 | 4 |
| Reme et al. (43) | Norway | Primary care patients | Low back pain | MINI plus | 565 | 0.6 | NA | 6 |
| Semiz et al. (44) | Turkey | Students | Migraine | SCID | 169 (45.7) | 3.5 | NA | 6 |
| Smitherman et al. (15) | United States | Students | Migraine | PCL-C | 300 (63.1) | 25.7 | 69.3% reported one or more significant stressors | 4 |
| Taiminen et al. (45) | Finland | Neurology or oral diseases clinic | Mixed CP | SCID | 63 (90) | 1.6 | NA | 5 |
| Thieme et al. (46) | Germany | Rheumatology department | FM | SCID | 115 (100) | 7.8 | 40.9% experienced physical abuse 20.9% experienced sexual abuse | 5 |
NA, not available; CDH, chronic daily headache; TTH, tension-type headache; HTQ, Harvard Trauma Questionnaire; SCID, structured clinical interview for DSM; PCL-C, posttraumatic checklist civilian version; PDS, Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale; CAPS, Clinician Administered PTSD Scale; MINI, M.I.N.I. International Neuropsychiatric Interview; CAAPE, comprehensive assessment, and psychological evaluation.