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. 2017 Sep 19;8:596. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-00685-3

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Comparative stress-strain charts for electrically driven actuators. a Actuation stress plotted against strain. b Specific actuation stress (actuation stress divided by density of the material) plotted against strain. Abbreviations: DEA- dielectric elastomer actuator, FEA- fluidic elastomer actuator, IPMC- ionic polymer-metal composite, PAM- pneumatic artificial muscle (McKibben actuator), SMA- shape memory alloy. The proposed material is labeled “Soft Actuator”. The ellipse designates a range of observed strains spanning from constrained unidirectional expansion of 140% to unconstrained volumetric expansion of 900%. For Thermal Expansion actuators, 10 and 100 K are the temperature change ranges in Kelvin degrees