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. 2017 Sep 19;16:61. doi: 10.1186/s12937-017-0284-z

Food intake patterns and cardiovascular risk factors in Japanese adults: analyses from the 2012 National Health and nutrition survey, Japan

Nay Chi Htun 1, Hitomi Suga 1, Shino Imai 1, Wakana Shimizu 1, Hidemi Takimoto 1,✉
PMCID: PMC5605968  PMID: 28927404

Abstract

Background

There is an increasing global interest in the role of Japanese diet as a possible explanation for the nation’s healthy diet, which contributes to the world’s highest life-expectancy enjoyed in Japan. However, nationwide studies on current food intake status among general Japanese population have not been established yet. This study examined the association between food intake patterns and cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) such as waist circumference (WC), body mass index (BMI), blood pressure (SBP, DBP), HbA1c and blood lipid profiles among general Japanese adults.

Methods

De-identified data on the Japan National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHNS) 2012 with a total of 11,365 subjects aged 20–84 years were applied. Food intake patterns were derived by principal component analysis (PCA) based on 98 food groups. Generalized linear regression analysis was used to assess the relation between the food intake patterns and CVRF.

Results

We identified three food intake patterns: traditional Japanese, Westernized, and meat and fat patterns. Traditional Japanese pattern was significantly related to high WC and BMI in men, and high DBP in women. Westernized pattern was associated with lower SBP, but high total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in both men and women. Meat and fat pattern was associated with high WC, high BMI, high blood pressure and blood lipid profiles in both men and women (trend P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The significant association between cardiovascular disease risks and three food intake patterns derived from the NHNS, showed a similar tendency to other dietary survey methods.

Keywords: Food intake pattern, Cardiovascular risk factors, Blood pressure, Blood lipid profiles, Japanese, National Health and nutrition survey (NHNS)

Background

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the major contributors to the global burden of disease, and is the leading cause of premature mortality [1]. The vast majority of cardiovascular disease is explained by conventional risk factors such as cigarette smoking, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and unhealthy lifestyle behaviors including poor dietary habits, excessive caloric intake, physical inactivity, and psychosocial stressors [2, 3]. Along with lifestyle factors such as physical activity, diet is one of the most important modifiable risk factors [4–7], providing effective means to achieve healthy and nutritious diets are essential for cardiovascular disease prevention [8].

Japan is unique among developed countries because the prevalence of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality remain substantially lower despite having the same trend in cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) (such as rise in serum cholesterol, etc.) as other developed countries [9, 10]. The world’s highest healthy life expectancy enjoyed in Japan may be partly explained by the Japanese diet. For example, a very recent cohort study found that the food intake patterns of Japanese adults who followed the government recommended food guide for the nation (the Japanese Spinning Top Food Guide 2005) at the baseline, had lower rates of mortality than those who didn’t [11]. And, another nationwide study in elderly Japanese has observed that improvement in dietary habits, such as yearly increase in vegetables and meat intake, may contribute to decreasing prevalence of anemia [12].

As dietary habits are influenced by lifestyle, socioeconomic and environmental factors such as family income, food prices, individual preferences, cultural beliefs, traditional single food- or nutrient-based approach may fail to take into consideration the complicated interaction and cumulative effects among nutrients. Therefore, overall assessment of food intake patterns, taking into account of the interactions, inter-correlations between nutrients and foods and their cumulative effects, has gained attention in the studies of the association between health and diseases [13].

Many epidemiologic cohort studies have been implemented to explain the correlation between food intake patterns and cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, obesity and blood lipid profiles [14, 15]. The scientific evidences have consistently shown that the food intake pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, fish and whole grains (known as healthy or prudent pattern) [16–18], DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) [19] and Mediterranean diet [20–23] are favorable for reducing cardiovascular disease risks, whereas food intake patterns characterized by high fat and sugar or a meat-based diet have deleterious effects and have been associated with increased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [15, 24]. To date, only one cross-sectional study in Japanese reported that vegetable-rich diet pattern was significantly associated with favorable blood lipid profiles in women [25]. Most of the above mentioned cohort studies identified food intake pattern using intake data from semi-quantified food frequency questionnaires (FFQs), on limited populations. Because FFQs are developed to assess the habitual intakes of the specific population of research subjects, the food lists (5 to 350, median number 79) applied may not be able to reflect the intakes of the general population [26]. On the other hand, weighed dietary records are able to provide more details on actual intakes and provide more precise estimates of portion sizes than FFQs. The Japan National Health and Nutrition Survey (J-NHNS) is unique, as it is based on a single day dietary survey in which the survey participants are requested to weigh and record all foods consumed. Currently 2116 food items are available for use in the J-NHNS. Of these, 1789 food items are the same as those listed in the Standard Tables of Food Composition 2010 [27], and 50 food items are original for the survey. The foods are then grouped into 98 food groups, which has been consistently used since 2005 [28].

This study aimed to explore the food intake patterns and examine their association with cardiovascular risk factors such as waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, HbA1c level and blood lipid profiles among 11,365 Japanese aged 20–84 years, using the nationally representative data from J-NHNS conducted in year 2012, while controlling for a wide range of potential confounding factors.

Methods

Survey outlines of the 2012 J-NHNS

Out of the 2010 national census areas units, 475 areas stratified by prefecture were randomly extracted for the 2012 J-NHNS, consisting of 10 areas per prefecture (Tokyo: 15 areas). Approximately 50 households were included in each area. Participants were household members (aged 1 year and over) of all households residing in the selected area. Total number of households and family members aged 1 year and over in the 475 areas were approximately 23,750 and 61,000, respectively. Of the selected census areas, four alternative areas were re-selected to replace those unable to conduct this survey due to the influence of the Great East Japan Earthquake [28].

De-identified records on the 2012 J-NHNS with the permission of secondary use of data from Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare were applied. A total of 11,365 subjects, 4686 men and 6679 women (pregnant and lactating mothers were excluded) aged 20–84 years who had a complete data on dietary intake, lifestyle factors, anthropological and blood pressure measurements, HbA1c measured in National Glyco-hemoglobin Standardization Program (NGSP) units (%), fasting blood lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C)] were selected.

The dietary survey was conducted by semi-weighing of all foods consumed in the one-day dietary records of the household, with proportional distribution within the household members [29]. Information regarding the cooking status (boiled, roasted, etc.) of each food was recorded, and post-cooked nutrient values in the Standard Food Composition Tables 2010 were applied for estimating nutrient intakes. For foods categorized as “cereals” except bread, post-cooked weight of the food was applied as the intake food weight. Participants aged 20 years and above were asked to record the number of daily step counts measured with a pedometer as part of the physical examination. BMI was calculated by weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.

Definition of hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol

Hypertension was defined as either having a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of ≥90 mmHg, currently under anti-hypertensive treatment, or previously diagnosed for hypertension. We defined diabetes based on HbA1c ≥6.5% or currently under anti-diabetic treatment, or previously diagnosed for diabetes. Subjects with hypercholesterolemia were defined as having serum total cholesterol level ≥ 240 mg/dL and subjects with elevated LDL cholesterol were defined as having serum LDL cholesterol level ≥ 140 mg/dL or subjects having lipid lowering medication for both. In the present study, anti-hyperlipidemia medication included both cholesterol-lowering medication and triglyceride-lowering medication.

Statistical analysis

The original 2116 food items used in the J-NHNS are categorized into 98 food groups [28]. Then food intake patterns were identified using principal component analysis (PCA) based on the 34 food groups reorganized from the original 98 food groups (Table 1). Analyses were done after excluding the subjects with total energy intake (kcal) under the 5th percentile (n = 1281, 1124 kcal) or above the 95th percentile (n = 1281, 2792 kcal). Eigen values > 1.5 were used to determine whether a factor should be considered as major food intake pattern. Varimax rotation was applied to review the correlations between variables and factors. Food groups with positive loadings in each pattern indicate the direct relationship and food groups with negative loadings shows the inverse relationship with that pattern. For each subject, the factor scores for each food intake pattern were calculated by summing the intakes of food items weighted by their factor loading [13]. Factor scores were then categorized into four groups based on the quartiles of factor scores. Spearman’s correlation coefficients were calculated between the factor scores of each pattern and energy-adjusted nutrient intakes so that the correlation between food intake patterns and specific nutrient intakes could be studied.

Table 1.

Factor loadings and explained variation in food groups

Food groups Factor1 Factor2 Factor3
34 Food groups used in dietary pattern anaylsis Original 98 food items from J-NHNS [food group number] Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
Rice Rice [1] 0.149 −0.667 −0.021
Rice products Rice products [2] −0.003 0.061 −0.030
Flour and wheat products Flour and wheat [3], other wheat products [4] −0.064 −0.038 0.399
Bread and danish bread [4], danish [5] −0.207 0.638 0.006
Noodles (includes soba) Udon, chinese noodles [6] instant chinese noodles [7] pasta [8] soba (buckwheat noodles) [10] −0.063 0.224 0.282
Corn products and other grains Corn products [11] other grains [12] 0.022 0.058 −0.022
Potatoes Sweet potatoes [13], potatoes [14], other starchy roots and tubers [15], processed starch [16] 0.323 −0.042 0.051
Sugars and sweeteners Sugars and sweeteners [17] 0.394 0.203 0.098
Beans Soy beans and soybean products [18], Tofu [19], soy bean curd [20], Natto [21], other soy bean products [22], other beans [23] 0.381 −0.043 −0.097
Seeds and nuts seeds and nuts [24] 0.163 0.115 −0.035
Fresh vegetables tomato [25] carrot [26] spanich [27] green pepper [28] other brightly colored vegetables [29] cabbage [30] cucumber [31] radish [32] onion [33] Chinese cabbage [34] other light-colored vegetables [35] 0.577 0.049 0.162
Vegetable juice vegetable juice [36] 0.006 0.116 −0.010
Salted or pickled vegetables leafy vegetables pickles [37] pickled radish and other salted or pickled vegetables [38] 0.261 −0.148 −0.177
Fresh fruit Strawberry [39], citrus fruits [40], banana [41], apples [42], other fruits [43] 0.389 0.333 −0.288
Jam Jam [44] 0.057 0.356 −0.041
Fruit juice Fruit juice [45] −0.055 0.036 0.050
Mushrooms Mushrooms [46] 0.372 0.085 0.117
Seaweeds Seaweeds [47] 0.262 −0.033 −0.049
Fish and shellfish Mackerel, sardines [48], salmon and trout [49], red snapper, flounder and flatfishes [50], tuna, swordfishs [51], other raw fishes [52], shellfishes [53], squid and cuttlefish [54], prawns and crabs [55], processed fishes and seafood (salted, dried) [56], canned fish and seafoods [57] tsukudani [58] fish paste [59], fish ham and sausages [60] 0.389 −0.144 −0.189
Meat Beef [61], pork [62], ham and sausages [63], other meats [64], chicken [65], other poultry [66], innards [67], whale [68], other processed meat and meat products [69] −0.055 −0.114 0.623
Eggs Eggs [70] 0.095 −0.114 0.238
Milk, cheese, and yogurt Milk [71], cheese [72], and yogurt [73] 0.144 0.420 −0.160
Other milk products Other dairy products [74], other milks [75] −0.076 0.045 0.034
Butter and margarine Butter [76], margarine [77] −0.160 0.484 0.164
Other fats Vegetable oils [78], animal fats [79], other fats [80] −0.032 −0.162 0.573
Confectionaries Japanese confectioneries (Wagashi) [81], cakes and pastries [82], biscuits [83], candies [84], other confectioneries [85] −0.019 0.203 −0.139
Alcohol drinks Japanese sake [86], beer [87], whiskey, wine and other alcoholic beverages [88] 0.028 −0.169 0.247
Tea Tea [89] 0.269 −0.003 −0.232
Coffee and cocoa Coffee and cocoa [90] −0.052 0.282 0.141
Other beverages Other beverages [91] −0.091 −0.018 0.192
Sauce, mayonnaise Sauce [92], salt [94], mayonnaise [95], other seasonings [97] 0.161 0.146 0.389
Soy sauce Soy sauce [93] 0.554 −0.014 0.242
Miso Miso [96] 0.397 −0.309 −0.139
Spices Spices [98] 0.137 0.019 0.149
Explained variation in food groups (%) 2.080 2.007 1.729
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Factor loadings (absolute values) > 0.3 were shown in bold characters

A detailed description of food groups used in NHNS were shown on page 57–63 (Table 1) of reference [28]

Generalized linear models was used to assess the association of adherence to three major food intake patterns with waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, HbA1c and blood lipid profiles (TC, LDL-C and HDL-C) after adjustment with other potential confounding variables; such as age in years, BMI, step counts/day (as continuous variables), smoking habit (1: current smoker, 2: past smoker, 3: non smoker), drinking habit (1: Yes, 2: No), and, medication status (hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, 1:Yes, 2: No). Trend association across quartile categories of each food intake pattern was assessed by using Cochrane-Armitage trend test for categorical variables and generalized linear regression analysis for continuous variables. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the association of dietary patterns with the risk of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol. The odds ratios (OR) were estimated for each quartile compared with the lowest quartile of each food intake pattern as the reference. The association analyses were performed separately in men and women. Two-sided P values <0.05 were regarded as statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using Statistical Analysis System 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA).

Results

Food intake pattern analysis

We identified three food intake patterns by principal component analysis: (a) “traditional Japanese” (greater intake of miso, soy sauce, fresh vegetables and fruits, beans and potatoes), (b) “Westernized” (greater intake of bread, dairy, butter and margarine, jam, low intake of rice and miso), (c) “Meat and fat” (high intake of meat, fat, sauce and mayonnaise, wheat and wheat products). These three food intake patterns accounted for 2.1%, 2.0% and 1.7%, respectively, explained 5.8% of the total variance in food intake (Table 1).

Spearman’s correlation coefficients showed positive correlations between nutrients and traditional Japanese pattern, while Westernized pattern showed positive correlation with total fat intake, micronutrients except vitamin D, vitamin B12, sodium and iron, and negative correlation with carbohydrate, ω-3 fatty acid. Meat and fat patterns showed positive correlation with total energy, protein and fat intake, ω-6 fatty acids, vitamin B1, sodium and iron, and negative correlation with other micronutrients (Table 2).

Table 2.

Correlation coefficients abetween subject characteristics, dietary energy and nutrient intakes and each factor

Men Women
Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
 Age at survey (yrs) 0.321 0.108 −0.378 0.354 0.024 −0.316
 Height (cm) −0.133 −0.011b 0.253 −0.162 0.063 0.209
 Body weight (kg) −0.007b −0.019b 0.152 −0.008b −0.004b 0.080
 Abdominal circumference (cm) 0.095 0.003b −0.025 0.127 −0.032 −0.078
 BMI 0.071 −0.020b 0.016b 0.086 −0.047 −0.039
 Steps per day 0.022b −0.008b 0.125 0.003b 0.063 0.123
 Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 0.112 −0.028 −0.091 0.207 −0.038 −0.135
 Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) −0.017b −0.042 0.056 0.107 −0.001b −0.027
 Serum total cholesterol (mg/dL) −0.027 0.023b 0.129 0.094 0.123 −0.009b
 Serum HDLcholesterol (mg/dL) −0.003b −0.004b 0.092 −0.048 0.100 0.093
 Serum LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) −0.063 0.051 0.094 0.056 0.093 −0.011b
 HbA1c (%) 0.156 0.049 −0.142 0.193 0.009b −0.120
Energy and nutrient intakes
 Energy (kcal) 0.357 −0.065 0.313 0.405 0.102 0.234
 Protein (g) 0.534 0.011 0.212 0.534 0.076 0.156
 Fat (%energy) 0.090 0.138 0.469 0.105 0.209 0.429
 ω-3 fatty acids (g) 0.338 −0.117 0.008b 0.348 −0.091 0.008b
 ω-6 fatty acids (g) 0.153 0.016b 0.448 0.194 0.046 0.397
 Carbohydrates (%energy) 0.331 −0.083 0.008b 0.416 0.037 −0.047
 Dietary fiber (g) 0.680 0.226 −0.008b 0.715 0.239 −0.013b
 Vitamin A (μgRAE) 0.393 0.141 0.026 0.417 0.149 0.015b
 Vitamin D (μg) 0.392 −0.072 −0.207 0.374 −0.053 −0.168
 Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.322 0.150 0.239 0.393 0.182 0.213
 VitaminB2 (mg) 0.449 0.165 −0.002b 0.475 0.195 −0.043
 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.600 0.030 0.068 0.631 0.088 0.024
 Vitamin B12 (μg) 0.353 −0.074 −0.157 0.351 −0.051 −0.149
 Folate (μg) 0.678 0.097 −0.075 0.708 0.119 −0.105
 VitaminC (mg) 0.522 0.174 −0.154 0.552 0.180 −0.176
 Sodium (mg) 0.519 0.025 0.184 0.555 0.029 0.152
 Potassium (mg) 0.751 0.205 −0.020b 0.768 0.240 −0.057
 Calcium (mg) 0.514 0.307 −0.107 0.531 0.322 −0.120
 Iron (mg) 0.692 0.018b 0.038 0.708 0.044 0.009b
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aSpearman’s correrlation analysis

bnot significant

General characteristics of the subjects by food intake patterns

Table 3 shows the general characteristics of the study subjects according to quartile categories of each food intake pattern score. Subjects with a higher score for the traditional Japanese pattern were older, had higher BMI and waist circumference, higher SBP, lower LDL-C, higher proportion of having anti-hypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-lipid medication and were likely to be past smoker in men and less likely to have smoking and drinking habits in women. Subjects with a higher score for the Westernized pattern were older, had lower BMI and waist circumference, higher LDL-C, were likely to have anti-hypertensive and anti-lipid medications, and were likely to have drinking habit than the group with lower Westernized pattern score. Participants with higher meat and fat pattern score were younger, had higher step counts, less likely to take anti-hypertensive, anti-diabetic and anti-lipid medications, but more likely to have smoking and drinking habits.

Table 3.

Subject charcterisics by gender, according to quartiles of the three food intake pattern scores

Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend
Men (N) 894 1059 1224 1509 1696 1125 908 957 947 1015 1185 1539
 Age at survey (yrs) 50.0 16.4 55.9 15.9 60.3 14.9 63.3 13.4 <0.001 56.4 15.9 57.7 16.1 59.8 15.7 60.9 14.6 <0.001 66.7 13.6 61.1 15.0 57.3 15.1 52.1 15.2 <0.001
 Height (cm) 167.5 6.5 166.7 7.0 166.0 6.7 165.3 6.8 <0.001 166.3 7.1 166.2 6.8 166.1 6.7 166.1 6.3 0.900 163.7 6.7 165.6 6.8 166.6 6.7 167.9 6.5 <0.001
 Body weight (kg) 66.8 11.5 65.5 10.5 65.2 10.4 65.7 10.1 0.006 66.1 11.1 65.5 10.5 65.5 9.8 65.6 10.3 0.370 63.3 10.0 65.2 10.3 65.8 10.6 67.4 10.7 <0.001
 Waist circumference (cm) 85.5 9.4 85.2 9.2 85.7 8.7 86.7 8.2 <0.001 85.9 8.9 85.5 9.0 86.1 8.6 86.0 8.7 0.479 85.9 8.7 86.1 8.7 85.5 8.9 85.9 8.9 0.457
 BMI 23.8 3.5 23.5 3.3 23.6 3.1 24.0 3.0 0.004 23.8 3.3 23.7 3.2 23.7 3.1 23.7 3.2 0.483 23.6 3.1 23.8 3.1 23.7 3.3 23.9 3.3 0.120
 Steps per day 6958 4514 7092 4328 7065 5208 6954 4082 0.834 7051 4915 6994 4264 6919 4227 7061 4428 0.890 6276 4262 6839 5236 7193 4236 7448 4360 <0.001
 Systolic blood pressure 132.6 18.0 133.6 17.6 136.6 17.5 136.9 17.1 <0.001 135.9 18.1 134.9 17.3 134.4 17.2 135.3 17.5 0.171 137.2 16.8 136.0 17.6 135.1 17.7 133.7 17.8 <0.001
 Diastolic blood pressure 82.5 11.5 81.9 11.4 82.0 10.8 81.6 10.7 0.324 82.5 11.3 81.8 10.9 81.4 11.2 81.8 10.5 0.098 81.0 10.8 81.4 10.7 82.2 11.0 82.8 11.4 0.000
 Serum total cholesterol 196.4 34.4 197.5 33.3 194.3 34.5 194.7 33.6 0.083 194.9 34.2 195.3 33.7 195.8 33.4 196.8 34.2 0.576 188.1 33.4 194.3 33.7 196.2 33.6 200.5 33.8 <0.001
 Serum HDLcholesterol 54.4 14.2 55.0 15.1 54.9 14.4 54.7 15.7 0.819 54.9 15.4 55.1 14.7 54.4 15.0 54.5 14.2 0.627 53.2 14.4 53.8 14.1 55.0 15.1 56.2 15.5 <0.001
 Serum LDL cholesterol 117.5 31.4 116.6 30.3 113.5 31.2 112.8 29.6 <0.001 113.2 31.1 114.5 30.5 115.3 30.3 117.2 30.0 0.011 109.2 30.0 114.7 30.1 114.9 30.0 118.0 31.3 <0.001
 HbA1C 5.7 0.8 5.7 0.8 5.8 0.8 5.8 0.7 <0.001 5.8 0.8 5.8 0.8 5.8 0.7 5.8 0.9 0.107 5.9 0.8 5.9 0.8 5.8 0.8 5.7 0.8 <0.001
 Anti-hypertensive medication (%) 21.3 26.7 33.2 35.4 <0.001 28.0 30.3 32.7 31.3 0.011 42.1 33.4 28.0 22.3 <0.001
 Anti-diabetic medication (%) 5.6 8.4 9.3 9.5 0.001 6.9 8.5 9.1 10.4 0.001 11.9 10.2 7.8 5.7 <0.001
 Anti-lipid medication (%) 8.4 11.0 12.9 14.9 <0.001 9.2 11.7 14.6 16.0 <0.001 14.8 15.0 11.9 9.2 <0.001
 Current smoking (%) 42.2 32.8 28.3 21.5 <0.001 34.2 29.7 25.3 26.2 <0.001 21.8 25.1 32.7 35.5 <0.001
 Past smoking (%) 30.3 37.8 43.1 48.6 <0.001 37.4 40.9 45.2 44.5 <0.001 48.5 43.0 40.6 36.1 <0.001
 Current drinking (%) 37.1 33.8 36.6 34.8 0.271 43.2 36.5 32.5 23.4 <0.001 24.7 31.6 37.8 42.9 <0.001
Women (N) 1589 1715 1747 1628 999 1715 1932 2033 2116 1923 1595 1045
 Age at survey (yrs) 49.2 15.3 56.4 15.8 59.9 14.1 64.1 11.9 <0.001 57.2 16.3 56.6 16.0 57.6 15.4 58.2 14.2 0.011 63.0 14.2 57.6 14.9 53.9 15.2 51.5 14.7 <0.001
 Height (cm) 154.9 6.3 153.7 6.7 153.3 6.7 152.1 6.2 <0.001 152.8 7.1 153.2 6.8 153.5 6.5 154.0 6.1 <0.001 151.7 6.7 153.6 6.5 154.5 6.3 155.2 6.0 <0.001
 Body weight (kg) 53.7 8.9 53.2 8.8 53.1 8.8 53.1 8.3 0.102 53.8 9.6 53.4 8.6 53.3 8.7 52.9 8.2 0.091 52.2 8.5 53.4 8.4 53.9 8.9 54.3 9.0 <0.001
 Waist circumference (cm) 80.5 10.3 81.3 10.2 81.8 9.8 82.8 9.7 <0.001 82.1 10.6 81.9 10.1 81.7 10.1 81.0 9.7 0.013 82.0 10.0 81.7 9.9 81.3 10.4 81.0 10.1 0.026
 BMI 22.4 3.7 22.6 3.6 22.6 3.5 23.0 3.4 <0.001 23.1 4.0 22.8 3.5 22.6 3.6 22.3 3.4 <0.001 22.7 3.5 22.6 3.5 22.6 3.7 22.6 3.6 0.837
 Steps per day 6450 3696 6101 3383 6366 3609 6465 3958 0.014 6096 4125 6242 3663 6233 3476 6651 3582 <0.001 5824 3706 6398 3559 6637 3588 6837 3766 <0.001
 Systolic blood pressure 122.8 18.7 127.8 19.1 130.1 18.7 133.3 18.4 <0.001 130.5 19.9 128.6 19.1 127.8 18.8 128.3 19.0 0.003 131.6 19.1 128.7 19.1 126.1 19.1 125.8 18.1 <0.001
 Diastolic blood pressure 75.3 10.9 77.1 10.7 78.0 10.7 78.3 10.3 <0.001 77.6 10.7 77.0 10.7 76.8 10.5 77.4 10.9 0.174 77.7 10.7 77.2 10.8 76.6 10.7 77.1 10.6 0.026
 Serum total cholesterol 200.3 34.9 203.5 34.5 207.2 34.3 206.9 34.0 <0.001 198.7 34.5 200.6 33.2 205.8 35.1 209.5 34.3 <0.001 204.3 34.7 206.1 33.8 204.1 34.6 203.0 35.2 0.096
 Serum HDLcholesterol 64.4 15.0 63.8 14.9 64.1 15.9 62.8 15.2 0.018 62.0 15.4 62.5 15.1 64.2 15.5 65.4 14.9 <0.001 62.2 15.0 63.6 15.3 64.7 15.2 66.0 15.7 <0.001
 Serum LDL cholesterol 116.2 31.1 118.2 30.7 119.7 30.0 119.5 30.2 0.004 114.0 30.0 115.8 29.4 119.6 31.0 121.7 30.9 <0.001 118.5 30.8 119.6 30.0 118.3 30.9 116.4 30.4 0.064
 HbA1C 5.6 0.6 5.7 0.7 5.7 0.6 5.8 0.7 <0.001 5.7 0.7 5.7 0.6 5.7 0.6 5.7 0.6 0.529 5.8 0.6 5.7 0.6 5.6 0.6 5.6 0.7 <0.001
 Anti-hypertensive medication (%) 15.7 26.3 26.4 32.7 <0.001 30.2 27.4 24.4 22.2 <0.001 33.9 25.4 19.5 16.9 <0.001
 Anti-diabetic medication (%) 3.2 4.0 4.2 5.3 0.002 4.1 4.4 3.8 4.3 0.496 5.1 5.0 2.8 2.8 <0.001
 Anti-lipid medication (%) 11.1 16.3 18.5 22.4 <0.001 15.1 17.1 16.9 18.3 0.021 21.2 18.5 13.7 11.6 <0.001
 Current smoking (%) 12.4 7.0 5.3 3.1 <0.001 7.0 7.3 6.4 6.9 0.351 4.9 5.6 8.2 11.3 <0.001
 Past smoking (%) 11.4 8.2 6.3 4.4 <0.001 7.5 7.1 7.6 7.9 0.229 4.8 7.5 9.3 10.5 <0.001
 Current drinking (%) 9.1 6.6 5.4 3.9 <0.001 8.6 8.2 5.7 3.8 <0.001 2.6 5.9 7.7 11.9 <0.001
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For continuous variables, the general linear model was applied

For categorical variables, the Cochrane-Armitage trend test was applied

Significant P values <0.05 were shown in bold characters

Energy and nutrients intake across the quartiles of food intake patterns

We explored the relationship between nutrients intake and the food intake pattern scores by generalized linear model analysis (Table 4). For all three food intake pattern scores, higher scores were associated with higher total energy intake in both men and women. A higher traditional Japanese pattern score was significantly associated with higher intakes of protein, ω-3, ω-6 fatty acids, dietary fiber, vitamin A, D, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, folate, sodium, potassium, calcium and iron in both men and women. Higher Westernized pattern score was associated with higher intake of protein, fat, ω-6 fatty acids, dietary fiber, vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, C, folate, sodium, potassium, calcium, and lower intake of ω-3 fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamin D and vitamin B12. Higher meat and fat pattern score was associated with higher intakes of protein, fat, ω-6 fatty acids, dietary fiber, vitamin B1, B2, B6, sodium, iron and lower intakes of ω-3 fatty acids, vitamin B12, C, folate, potassium and calcium in both men and women.

Table 4.

Energy and nutrient intakes by gender, according to quartiles of the three food intake pattern scores

Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
Men Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
N 894 1059 1224 1509 1696 1125 908 957 947 1015 1185 1539
/day Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend
Energy (kcal) 1954 411 2039 409 2117 403 2333 381 <0.001 2189 425 2080 427 2082 414 2166 416 <0.001 2000 393 2042 400 2109 401 2308 422 <0.001
Protein (g) 62.2 16.8 70.5 16.5 76.9 18.0 89.6 20.1 <0.001 77.6 22.1 75.3 20.8 75.3 19.8 78.2 18.9 0.001 73.4 21.5 73.2 19.6 75.3 20.3 82.2 20.3 <0.001
Fat (%energy) 24.9 7.6 23.8 6.9 23.2 6.8 22.6 6.6 <0.001 21.9 6.8 23.3 6.9 24.3 6.8 25.7 6.6 <0.001 19.6 6.3 22.0 6.3 23.9 6.2 26.5 6.9 <0.001
ω-3 fatty acids (g) 1.8 1.1 2.2 1.3 2.6 1.6 3.1 1.7 <0.001 2.7 1.7 2.5 1.6 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.4 <0.001 2.7 1.8 2.5 1.6 2.3 1.5 2.5 1.4 <0.001
ω-6 fatty acids (g) 9.2 4.3 9.5 4.2 9.8 4.3 10.9 4.7 <0.001 10.0 4.5 9.7 4.4 9.8 4.2 10.4 4.7 0.003 7.6 3.8 8.6 3.4 9.8 3.8 12.3 4.8 <0.001
Carbohydrates (%energy) 62.3 8.5 62.2 8.0 62.1 7.9 62.0 7.6 0.782 63.9 8.0 62.2 7.9 61.2 7.7 59.8 7.3 <0.001 65.7 7.8 63.6 7.4 61.8 7.2 59.2 7.8 <0.001
Dietary fiber (g) 10.5 3.7 13.3 4.1 15.8 4.6 21.7 7.0 <0.001 14.5 5.9 15.8 6.5 16.9 6.7 18.6 7.6 <0.001 16.7 7.6 15.8 6.3 16.0 6.7 16.0 6.5 0.019
Vitamin A (μgRAE) 386 520 485 638 540 633 730 832 <0.001 502 708 582 705 575 682 621 682 0.000 513 425 549 557 594 800 569 821 0.055
Vitamin D (μg) 4.8 6.6 7.0 7.8 9.2 9.0 12.1 11.1 <0.001 9.7 10.3 8.8 9.6 8.4 9.2 7.5 7.9 <0.001 11.5 10.9 9.8 10.1 8.3 9.1 6.8 7.8 <0.001
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.6 1.1 0.7 <0.001 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.6 1.1 0.8 <0.001 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.1 0.7 <0.001
VitaminB2 (mg) 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.6 1.6 0.7 <0.001 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.7 1.3 0.6 1.5 0.8 <0.001 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.165
Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.4 0.7 1.8 1.1 <0.001 1.4 1.0 1.4 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.5 1.0 0.071 1.4 0.9 1.4 0.9 1.3 0.8 1.5 1.2 0.011
Vitamin B12 (μg) 4.6 5.3 6.4 7.9 7.6 7.3 9.8 8.9 <0.001 8.1 8.7 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.7 6.8 7.2 0.000 9.3 8.5 7.9 7.5 6.9 7.1 6.5 8.2 <0.001
Folate (μg) 208 91 275 138 325 117 438 165 <0.001 317 176 322 149 334 152 348 148 <0.001 350 171 325 140 320 144 322 176 <0.001
VitaminC (mg) 58.9 56.7 82.9 56.4 106.0 63.5 154.6 99.4 <0.001 91.2 63.6 102.5 74.1 116.2 83.0 133.7 110.6 <0.001 130.0 102.6 110.0 77.8 103.1 79.5 95.2 71.4 <0.001
Sodium (mg) 3482 1319 4021 1304 4553 1377 5568 1693 <0.001 4579 1677 4496 1687 4467 1560 4668 1674 0.032 4257 1618 4389 1602 4471 1535 4914 1746 <0.001
Potassium (mg) 1689 519 2124 495 2494 543 3303 837 <0.001 2338 810 2460 830 2615 912 2811 934 <0.001 2639 1012 2465 846 2476 859 2509 822 <0.001
Calcium (mg) 363 191 460 217 535 213 664 248 <0.001 450 213 512 229 571 249 638 273 <0.001 574 275 538 242 516 249 499 227 <0.001
Iron (mg) 5.9 1.9 7.4 2.1 8.5 2.1 10.9 3.0 <0.001 8.5 3.0 8.5 3.0 8.5 3.1 8.7 3.0 0.511 8.7 3.1 8.3 3.1 8.4 3.0 8.7 2.9 0.004
Women
N 1589 1715 1747 1628 999 1715 1932 2033 2116 1923 1595 1045
Energy (kcal) 1542 320 1640 316 1744 309 1905 298 <0.001 1724 342 1661 339 1685 340 1764 325 <0.001 1637 335 1673 325 1738 328 1875 319 <0.001
Protein (g) 52.7 13.8 60.3 14.4 66.8 15.0 76.8 16.2 <0.001 63.7 17.3 63.1 18.1 63.8 17.0 65.9 16.6 <0.001 62.2 17.8 62.5 16.5 65.2 16.6 70.0 17.1 <0.001
Fat (%energy) 27.1 7.5 25.8 7.2 25.1 6.9 24.3 6.6 <0.001 23.1 6.9 24.5 7.1 26.1 7.1 27.2 6.9 <0.001 22.2 6.6 25.2 6.4 27.6 6.6 29.7 6.9 <0.001
ω-3 fatty acids (g) 1.5 1.0 1.9 1.2 2.2 1.3 2.6 1.4 <0.001 2.3 1.3 2.1 1.3 2.1 1.3 2.0 1.3 <0.001 2.2 1.4 2.0 1.3 2.0 1.2 2.1 1.2 <0.001
ω-6 fatty acids (g) 7.7 3.5 8.0 3.6 8.8 3.9 9.7 4.2 <0.001 8.7 3.9 8.2 3.8 8.5 4.0 8.8 3.9 <0.001 7.1 3.5 8.1 3.4 9.3 3.7 11.3 4.2 <0.001
Carbohydrates (%energy) 59.2 8.4 59.4 8.1 59.4 7.9 59.5 7.6 0.706 62.1 8.1 60.3 8.2 58.8 7.9 57.9 7.5 <0.001 62.6 7.8 59.8 7.4 57.3 7.5 55.3 7.7 <0.001
Dietary fiber (g) 10.3 3.3 13.4 3.9 16.4 4.3 21.7 6.2 <0.001 13.3 5.2 14.8 6.1 15.6 6.1 17.1 6.2 <0.001 15.7 6.4 15.2 6.0 15.3 5.9 15.7 6.3 0.025
Vitamin A (μgRAE) 362 335 472 396 586 686 714 596 <0.001 471 773 521 533 537 430 575 501 <0.001 513 417 543 528 548 579 542 705 0.165
Vitamin D (μg) 4.5 6.2 6.8 7.7 8.2 8.1 10.6 9.4 <0.001 7.8 8.3 8.0 8.7 7.6 8.2 7.0 7.8 0.001 9.0 8.9 7.5 8.1 7.0 8.0 5.7 6.7 <0.001
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.9 0.5 1.0 0.5 <0.001 0.7 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.9 0.5 <0.001 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.9 0.5 1.0 0.6 <0.001
VitaminB2 (mg) 0.9 0.5 1.1 0.6 1.2 0.5 1.4 0.5 <0.001 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.6 1.2 0.6 1.2 0.6 <0.001 1.2 0.6 1.1 0.5 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.6 <0.001
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.8 0.6 1.1 0.7 1.2 0.6 1.5 0.6 <0.001 1.1 0.7 1.2 0.7 1.2 0.7 1.2 0.6 0.012 1.2 0.7 1.1 0.7 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.7 <0.001
Vitamin B12 (μg) 3.8 4.3 5.5 5.7 6.4 6.2 7.9 6.5 <0.001 6.5 7.1 6.2 6.2 5.7 5.5 5.6 5.5 <0.001 7.1 6.7 5.7 5.7 5.3 5.2 4.9 5.5 <0.001
Folate (μg) 200 70 273 89 331 109 431 130 <0.001 288 129 302 134 311 128 324 133 <0.001 327 136 302 126 301 129 299 134 <0.001
VitaminC (mg) 64.3 50.0 95.9 58.6 121.9 69.2 167.6 90.3 <0.001 89.6 58.2 105.6 73.1 113.2 77.4 129.5 87.1 <0.001 131.6 89.5 109.2 74.1 100.4 66.1 99.4 69.9 <0.001
Sodium (mg) 2949 1016 3512 1072 4076 1144 4978 1413 <0.001 3967 1420 3824 1389 3816 1372 3955 1367 0.001 3653 1327 3810 1372 3957 1348 4372 1441 <0.001
Potassium (mg) 1596 450 2080 487 2493 531 3204 756 <0.001 2054 687 2241 794 2375 811 2554 826 <0.001 2425 854 2300 797 2300 769 2349 805 <0.001
Calcium (mg) 359 177 462 203 556 212 672 238 <0.001 401 180 466 230 529 232 594 245 <0.001 552 257 507 229 495 230 473 215 <0.001
Iron (mg) 5.4 1.5 6.9 2.1 8.2 2.0 10.2 2.7 <0.001 7.5 2.5 7.7 2.9 7.7 2.7 7.8 2.7 0.115 7.8 3.0 7.5 2.6 7.7 2.7 7.9 2.6 0.001
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For continuous variables, the general linear model was applied

Association of each food intake pattern with waist circumference, BMI, blood pressure and blood lipid profiles

Table 5 shows mean waist circumference, BMI, blood pressure, HbA1c and blood lipid profiles according to the quartiles for each food intake pattern. The multivariable adjusted geometric means for waist circumference (P for trend = 0.008) and BMI (P for trend = 0.001) in men, and mean DBP (P for trend = 0.019) in women were significantly increased according to the lowest to the highest quartile of traditional Japanese pattern. Men in the highest quartile of Westernized pattern had lower SBP (P for trend = 0.003), higher TC (P for trend = 0.047) and higher LDL-C (P for trend = 0.006), while women in the highest quartile of Westernized pattern had lower waist circumference (P for trend = 0.039), lower BMI (P for trend <0.001), lower SBP (P for trend = 0.001) and higher TC, HDL-C and LDL-C (P for trend <0.001 for all). Compared with the lowest quartile of the meat and fat pattern, those in the highest quartile had higher waist circumference (P for trend = 0.016), SBP (P for trend = 0.013), DBP (P for trend = 0.003), TC (P for trend <0.001) and LDL-C (P for trend <0.001) in men and higher waist circumference (P for trend <0.001), BMI (P for trend <0.001), TC (P for trend = 0.001) and LDL-C (P for trend = 0.013) in women. No association between HbA1c and food intake patterns was observed in both men and women.

Table 5.

Subject characteristics adjusted for age, medication status, smoking status, drinking, and steps count, according to quartiles of the three food intake pattern scores

Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. p for trend Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. p for trend Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p for trend
Men (N) 895 1061 1228 1509 1698 1127 909 959 947 1015 1185 1539
Waist circumference (cm) 85.8 0.3 85.3 0.3 85.6 0.2 86.4 0.2 0.008 86.0 0.2 85.5 0.3 85.9 0.3 85.9 0.3 0.516 85.2 0.3 85.9 0.3 85.6 0.2 86.4 0.2 0.016
BMI (kg/m2) 23.7 0.1 23.5 0.1 23.7 0.1 24.0 0.1 0.001 23.9 0.1 23.7 0.1 23.7 0.1 23.7 0.1 0.333 23.6 0.1 23.7 0.1 23.7 0.1 23.9 0.1 0.081
Systolic blood pressure 136.1 0.5 134.7 0.5 135.6 0.5 134.8 0.4 0.182 136.3 0.4 135.0 0.5 133.9 0.5 134.9 0.5 0.003 133.8 0.5 135.1 0.5 135.4 0.5 136.1 0.4 0.013
Diastolic blood pressure 82.7 0.4 82.1 0.3 81.9 0.3 81.5 0.3 0.128 82.2 0.3 81.8 0.3 81.5 0.4 82.2 0.4 0.338 81.0 0.4 81.5 0.3 82.1 0.3 82.7 0.3 0.003
Serum total cholesterol 195.1 1.1 197.2 1.0 194.7 1.0 195.4 0.9 0.305 194.1 0.8 195.2 1.0 196.4 1.1 197.8 1.1 0.047 189.5 1.1 194.8 1.0 195.9 1.0 199.6 0.9 <0.001
Serum HDLcholesterol 54.3 0.5 55.1 0.4 54.8 0.4 54.7 0.4 0.691 54.3 0.3 55.0 0.4 54.6 0.5 55.5 0.5 0.170 54.5 0.5 54.1 0.4 54.8 0.4 55.4 0.4 0.199
Serum LDL cholesterol 115.9 1.0 115.9 0.9 114.0 0.9 113.8 0.8 0.191 113.0 0.7 114.5 0.9 115.6 1.0 117.1 1.0 0.006 110.0 1.0 115.1 0.9 114.7 0.9 117.4 0.8 <0.001
HbA1C 5.78 0.02 5.77 0.02 5.79 0.02 5.78 0.02 0.902 5.81 0.02 5.77 0.02 5.75 0.02 5.77 0.02 0.158 5.74 0.02 5.79 0.02 5.77 0.02 5.80 0.02 0.125
Women (N) 1589 1716 1748 1628 999 1715 1932 2033 2116 1923 1595 1045
Waist circumference (cm) 82.0 0.2 81.3 0.2 81.4 0.2 81.7 0.2 0.170 81.9 0.3 81.8 0.2 81.7 0.2 81.1 0.2 0.039 80.7 0.2 81.7 0.2 82.1 0.2 82.4 0.3 <0.001
BMI (kg/m2) 22.7 0.1 22.5 0.1 22.5 0.1 22.7 0.1 0.138 23.0 0.1 22.7 0.1 22.6 0.1 22.4 0.1 <0.001 22.4 0.1 22.6 0.1 22.8 0.1 22.9 0.1 <0.001
Systolic blood pressure 128.1 0.4 128.4 0.4 128.7 0.4 129.1 0.4 0.321 130.3 0.5 128.9 0.4 127.8 0.4 128.1 0.4 0.001 127.9 0.4 128.6 0.4 128.6 0.4 129.6 0.5 0.062
Diastolic blood pressure 76.5 0.3 77.2 0.3 77.6 0.2 77.3 0.3 0.019 77.5 0.3 77.1 0.3 76.8 0.2 77.4 0.2 0.229 76.9 0.2 77.2 0.2 77.1 0.3 77.9 0.3 0.115
Serum total cholesterol 204.1 0.9 204.4 0.8 205.8 0.8 203.7 0.8 0.287 199.3 1.0 201.4 0.8 205.6 0.7 208.7 0.7 <0.001 202.1 0.7 206.1 0.8 205.3 0.8 205.3 1.0 0.001
Serum HDLcholesterol 63.5 0.4 63.8 0.4 64.3 0.4 63.5 0.4 0.338 62.0 0.5 62.3 0.4 64.3 0.3 65.4 0.3 <0.001 63.3 0.3 63.5 0.3 64.0 0.4 64.8 0.5 0.070
Serum LDL cholesterol 118.8 0.8 118.7 0.7 118.7 0.7 117.5 0.7 0.531 114.5 0.9 116.6 0.7 119.4 0.7 121.0 0.7 <0.001 116.8 0.7 119.7 0.7 119.1 0.7 118.3 0.9 0.013
HbA1C 5.68 0.01 5.70 0.01 5.69 0.01 5.72 0.01 0.173 5.73 0.02 5.69 0.01 5.69 0.01 5.69 0.01 0.295 5.68 0.01 5.70 0.01 5.70 0.01 5.73 0.02 0.063
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The general linear model adjusted for participant age, steps count, medication status (hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia), smoking and drinking status was applied

Significant P values <0.05 were shown in bold characters

Association of each food intake pattern with hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol

Table 6 showed the logistic regression analysis for the association of each food intake pattern with cardiovascular disease risk. Traditional Japanese pattern was related to a lower prevalence of hypertension in men and not in women. The multivariate-adjusted ORs (95% CI) for the lowest through highest quartiles of the traditional Japanese pattern were 1.00 (reference), 0.75 (0.59–0.95), 0.83 (0.65–1.04) and 0.67 (0.53–0.84), respectively (trend P = 0.003). Westernized pattern was associated with higher prevalence of hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol in women, but not in men. The multivariate-adjusted ORs (95% CI) comparing the highest quartile to the lowest were Q2: 1.13 (0.87–1.46), Q3: 1.33 (1.04–1.71) and Q4: 1.80 (1.41–2.29) for hypercholesterolemia (trend P < 0.001), and Q2: 1.19 (0.86–1.62), Q3: 1.43 (1.06–1.93) and Q4: 1.75 (1.30–2.35) for elevated LDL cholesterol (trend P < 0.001). Also, higher meat-fat pattern score was positively associated with hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia in men, but not in women (Table 6).

Table 6.

Association of each food intake pattern with hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol

Traditional Japanese Westernized Meat and fat
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 p for trend Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 p for trend Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 p for trend
Men (N) 895 1061 1228 1509 1698 1127 909 959 947 1015 1185 1539
Hypertension
 Prevalence: n (%) 445 (49.8) 546 (51.6) 738 (60.3) 918 (60.8) 959 (56.5) 633 (56.3) 517 (56.9) 538 (56.2) 611 (64.5) 596 (58.7) 650 (54.9) 790 (51.3)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 0.75 (0.59–0.95) 0.83 (0.65–1.04) 0.67 (0.53–0.84) 0.003 1 (ref) 0.93 (0.76–1.14) 0.86 (0.69–1.06) 0.84 (0.68–1.05) 0.169 1 (ref) 1.13 (0.88–1.45) 1.20 (0.94–1.53) 1.41 (1.11–1.79) 0.008
Diabetes
 Prevalence: n (%) 110 (12.3) 148 (14.0) 214 (17.5) 271 (18.0) 245 (14.4) 176 (15.6) 149 (16.4) 173 (18.1) 179 (18.9) 199 (19.6) 184 (15.5) 181 (11.8)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 0.69 (0.48–1.00) 0.90 (0.64–1.27) 0.80 (0.57–1.11) 0.300 1 (ref) 0.92 (0.69–1.23) 0.87 (0.64–1.19) 0.92 (0.68–1.25) 0.839 1 (ref) 1.62 (1.17–2.25) 1.52 (1.09–2.12) 1.38 (0.98–1.95) 0.021
Hypercholesterolemia
 Prevalence: n (%) 170 (19.0) 219 (20.7) 266 (21.7) 355 (23.5) 315 (18.6) 231 (20.5) 220 (24.2) 244 (25.5) 197 (20.8) 243 (23.9) 250 (21.1) 320 (20.8)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 1.01 (0.75–1.38) 0.94 (0.69–1.27) 0.94 (0.70–1.27) 0.853 1 (ref) 1.04 (0.79–1.36) 1.20 (0.90–1.60) 1.22 (0.92–1.62) 0.415 1 (ref) 1.45 (1.02–2.07) 1.34 (0.94–1.89) 1.64 (1.17–2.29) 0.036
Elevated LDL cholesterol
 Prevalence: n (%) 161 (18.0) 200 (18.9) 234 (19.1) 314 (20.8) 270 (15.9) 213 (18.9) 206 (22.7) 220 (23.0) 190 (20.1) 217 (21.4) 223 (18.8) 279 (18.1)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 0.94 (0.67–1.30) 0.78 (0.56–1.10) 0.78 (0.56–1.09) 0.281 1 (ref) 1.19 (0.88–1.62) 1.40 (1.02–1.92) 1.18 (0.85–1.64) 0.228 1 (ref) 1.11 (0.75–1.64) 1.07 (0.73–1.57) 1.28 (0.89–1.85) 0.462
Women (N) 1589 1716 1748 1628 999 1715 1932 2033 2116 1923 1595 1045
Hypertension
 Prevalence: n (%) 439 (27.6) 697 (40.6) 778 (44.5) 835 (51.3) 461 (46.1) 727 (42.4) 782 (40.5) 779 (38.3) 1073 (50.7) 798 (41.5) 547 (34.3) 331 (31.7)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 1.05 (0.83–1.32) 1.13 (0.91–1.42) 1.03 (0.82–1.30) 0.507 1 (ref) 0.96 (0.75–1.23) 0.90 (0.70–1.14) 0.88 (0.69–1.11) 0.142 1 (ref) 1.05 (0.86–1.27) 1.00 (0.81–1.22) 1.03 (0.81–1.31) 0.840
Diabetes
 Prevalence: n (%) 100 (6.3) 141 (8.2) 141 (8.1) 171 (10.5) 97 (9.7) 146 (8.5) 146 (7.6) 164 (8.1) 207 (9.8) 177 (9.2) 102 (6.4) 67 (6.4)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 1.02 (0.70–1.48) 0.86 (0.59–1.26) 0.95 (0.66–1.38) 0.521 1 (ref) 0.78 (0.54–1.13) 0.71 (0.49–1.02) 0.75 (0.52–1.08) 0.061 1 (ref) 1.14 (0.85–1.55) 1.09 (0.77–1.53) 1.31 (0.88–1.96) 0.231
Hypercholesterolemia
 Prevalence: n (%) 375 (23.6) 497 (29.0) 588 (33.7) 585 (35.9) 255 (25.5) 482 (28.1) 586 (30.3) 722 (35.5) 721 (34.1) 617 (32.1) 443 (27.8) 264 (25.3)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 0.92 (0.74–1.14) 1.02 (0.83–1.26) 0.84 (0.67–1.06) 0.237 1 (ref) 1.13 (0.87–1.46) 1.33 (1.04–1.71) 1.80 (1.41–2.29) <0.001 1 (ref) 1.14 (0.94–1.38) 1.21 (0.99–1.48) 1.21 (0.96–1.53) 0.567
Elevated LDL cholesterol
 Prevalence: n (%) 302 (19.0) 426 (24.8) 491 (28.1) 514 (31.6) 218 (21.8) 418 (24.4) 505 (26.1) 592 (29.1) 631 (29.8) 516 (26.8) 373 (23.4) 213 (20.4)
 ORa (95% CI) 1 (ref) 1.06 (0.82–1.37) 1.12 (0.87–1.45) 1.05 (0.80–1.38) 0.755 1 (ref) 1.19 (0.86–1.62) 1.43 (1.06–1.93) 1.75 (1.30–2.35) <0.001 1 (ref) 0.99 (0.78–1.24) 1.15 (0.91–1.46) 1.06 (0.80–1.40) 0.333
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a The logistic regression analysis adjusted for participant age, waist circumference, BMI, steps count, medication status (hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia), smoking and drinking status was applied

OR (95% CI): Adjusted odds ratio (95% Confidence Interval)

Significant P values <0.05 were shown in bold characters

Discussion

In this cross-sectional analysis of the Japan NHNS 2012 data, we identified three food intake patterns derived by principal component analysis: the traditional Japanese pattern, Westernized pattern, meat and fat pattern. Food intake patterns showed differences in associations between CVRFs among men and women. The traditional Japanese pattern was significantly associated with increased BMI and waist circumference, but significantly lower prevalence of hypertension in men. This association may be partly explained by higher energy intake, but with higher vegetable as well as potatoes consumption, which are rich in potassium [30] and contributed to lower blood pressure [31]. However, the traditional Japanese pattern for women was found to have a positive association with diastolic blood pressure. High salt intake (such as from miso soup and Japanese pickles intake) in the highest quartile of traditional Japanese pattern in women may have contributed to raised diastolic blood pressure [32, 33].

Westernized pattern was inversely associated with SBP in men, waist circumference in both men and women, and BMI (in women). The Westernized pattern identified in our study is somewhat similar to previously reported ‘bread-dairy pattern’ or ‘Westernized breakfast pattern’, mainly comprising bread and danish, butter and margarine, milk, cheese and yogurt, fresh fruits but low intakes of rice, which was inversely related with abdominal obesity, BMI and blood pressure [34–37]. In our study population, subjects in the highest quartile of the Westernized pattern consumed greater amount of potassium intake than those in the lowest quartile. Because high potassium intake is a known protective factor for hypertension [31], the higher potassium intake from fresh fruits in the high Westernized pattern score group may have contributed to lower blood pressure. Additionally, foods or nutrients contributed to westernized breakfast pattern such as milk and yogurt, which are rich source of calcium, have also been shown to decrease blood pressure [38]. On the other hand, the Westernized pattern was positively associated with HDL-C (in women), TC and LDL-C in both men and women, and positively associated with hypercholesterolemia and elevated LDL cholesterol in women. This may be due to high fat intake among the highest quartile of Westernized pattern (Table 4) [39].

Interestingly, a simultaneous increase in both HDL and LDL cholesterol was observed with the higher Westernized pattern score in women, consistent with the finding reported by JY Shin et al., 2013 [35]. It has been reported that the average HDL-C levels are indeed high among Japanese people in general, due to genetic deficiency of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) [40]. In spite of high HDL-C levels, we speculate that these certain number of subjects with CETP deficiency had increased risk of dyslipidemia. Furthermore, this direct association of increased HDL cholesterol with the Westernized pattern might be mediated by lower carbohydrates [41] and higher saturated fat intake [42] and butter [43] among those in the highest quartile of the Westernized pattern.

As expected, meat and fat pattern identified in our study was positively associated with waist circumference, BMI, blood pressure, TC and LDL-C in both men and women, and higher prevalence of hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia in men after additional adjustment for waist circumference and BMI [44–47]. These positive associations may partly be attributable to the unhealthy cardiovascular risk constituents in meat and fat pattern (such as red meat and saturated fats and cholesterol) [48]. Our result is comparable to a cohort study in Japan that reported a pattern with high meat intakes was closely related to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases [49].

However, the present study has some limitations. First, as the association was derived from the cross-sectional study, the causal relationship between food intake patterns and the cardiovascular risk factors could not be determined, and may have possibility of reverse causality. Awareness of previously diagnosed hypertension or dyslipidemia can alter their food intake patterns, such as an increase in the consumption of vegetables in hypertensive subjects [50]. However, the significant association persisted after adjusting for medication for hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia. Second, as the Japan NHNS is usually conducted in November, the observed food intake patterns may not accurately reflect seasonal variations in food intake and availability. Third, although the food intake was estimated through a self-reported dietary record data and checking of the records were conducted by trained dieticians, under or over reporting of intake is inevitable. Last, because food intake patterns were derived from the one-day dietary record with a diverse variables of food items, explained variation in food groups of the principal component analysis was low compared to previous studies using FFQs. Because FFQs are developed to assess the habitual food intakes of the specific population of research subjects, the possible food intake patterns may have been pre-defined by their habitual intake which give rise to higher explained variance of each pattern compared to one-day dietary record. Previous study of dietary patterns by Hamer M et al. using weighed food record also showed a similar trend of low percentage of explained variance [51]. Moreover, a study of dietary patterns by McCann SE et al. using FFQs, also observed that the explained variance increased as the number of food groups decreased [52]. Despite these limitations, our study was based on a large-scale, nationally representative health and nutrition survey data, which was highly standardized in obtaining socio demographic and lifestyle characteristics as well as biological cardiovascular risk factors.

Conclusion

In summary, three major food intake patterns identified in this cross-sectional analysis, were found to have significant associations with cardiovascular risk factors. The traditional Japanese pattern showed protective effect against hypertension in men, Westernized pattern was positively associated with dyslipidemia in women, while meat-fat pattern was related to all cardiovascular risk factors in men. The association between cardiovascular disease risk factors and food intake patterns derived from one-day dietary records of the National Health and Nutrition Survey was similar to previous cohort studies examining habitual intake through FFQs.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. Suminori Kono, the Principal Investigator, who designed and planned the research project and made this work possible.

Funding

This work was supported by Health and Labor Sciences Research Grants (Special Research Project H26-tokubetsu-shitei-033) from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

BMI

Body mass index

CETP

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein

CVD

Cardiovascular disease

CVRF

Cardiovascular risk factors

DASH

Dietary approaches to stop hypertension

DBP

Diastolic blood pressure

FFQs

Food frequency questionnaires

HbA1c

Hemoglobin A1c

HDL-C

High density lipoprotein cholesterol

J-NHNS

The Japan National Health and Nutrition Survey

LDL-C

low density lipoprotein cholesterol

NGSP

National Glyco-hemoglobin Standardization Program

OR

Odds ratio

PCA

Principal component analysis

SBP

Systolic blood pressure

TC

Total cholesterol

WC

Waist circumference

Authors’ contributions

HT substantially contributed to the conception and design, and the acquisition of the data. HT and NCH contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the data and NCH drafted the manuscript. HS, SI and WS took part in the interpretation of the data and provided critical revisions of the manuscript for important intellectual content. HT made a final revision and approval of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

We obtained the consent of the secondary use of the 2012 NHNS data from Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. This study was approved by the institutional review board of the National Institute of Health and Nutrition.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Nay Chi Htun, Email: nhtun@nibiohn.go.jp.

Hitomi Suga, Email: hitomis-tky@umin.ac.jp.

Shino Imai, Email: imai-shino@mhlw.go.jp.

Wakana Shimizu, Email: wakana.cedar.1130@gmail.com.

Hidemi Takimoto, Phone: +81-3-3203-5721, Email: thidemi@nibiohn.go.jp.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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