Table 2.
Factors and cytokines involved in humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy (HHM) and local osteolytic hypercalcemia (LOH).
| Factor | Mechanism |
|---|---|
| Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) | HHM; LOH |
| Macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α) | HHM; LOH |
| Calcitriol (1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D3) | HHM |
| Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) | LOH |
| Interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-3, IL-6, IL-8, IL-11 | LOH; HHM |
| Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), TNF-β | LOH; HHM |
| Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) | LOH; HHM |
| Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) | LOH; HHM |
| Various, less common cytokines (prostaglandin E2, TGF-α) | LOH; HHM |