Table 1. Measures of engagement in problem recognition, help seeking, and treatment participation pertinent to ethnic minority and immigrant children and families.
| Illness experience A: denotes illness identity, B1: beliefs about characteristics of individuals with mental distress, B2: beliefs about the illness experience of the individual with mental distress, B3: perceived norms and beliefs about social responses to individuals with mental distress, C: behaviors and experiences of individuals with mental distress | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Help-seeking beliefs and experiences Dl: beliefs regarding the efficacy of mental health treatment, D2: perceived norms about mental health treatments, D3: willingness and control factors in help seeking, D4: beliefs about the provider-client relationship, E: alternate help-seeking approaches, F: engagement behaviors (past and current behaviors and experiences of help seeking) | |||||||||||||||||
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| Author | Sample | General mental distress, DSM, culturally specific | Expressions Symptoms S: somatic P: psychological I: interpersonal | Causal belief | Illness experience beliefs and behaviors | Help-seeking beliefs and behaviors | Ethnic minority cross-cultural | Children, youth, family | |||||||||
| Illness identity | Illness experience beliefs | Illness behaviors experiences | Beliefs of mental health treatments | Alternate help seeking | Engagement behaviors (past and current) | ||||||||||||
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| A | Bl | B2 | B3 | C | Dl | D2 | D3 | D4 | E | F | |||||||
| Abera et al. (2015) | 532 Ethiopian adults | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Alcázar-Olán et al. (2016) | 504 Adolescents in Mexico City | Culturally specific anger | X (P) | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Angermeyer and Klusmann (1988) | 198 Patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective psychosis, affective psychoses | DSM | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Angermeyer and Matschinger (1996) | 476 Relatives caring for a family member with schizophrenia | DSM | X | X | |||||||||||||
| An gold et al. (1998) | General population sample of 1015, 9-, 11-, and 13-year-olds and their parents | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Austin and Huberty (1993) | 50 Children between 8 and 12 with epilepsy or asthma | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Barker et al. (1983) | 126 Patients at a psychiatric center | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Batterham et al. (2013) | 789 Staff and students in college | DSM | X (P) | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Bird et al. (1993) | 182 White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American children | General | X (P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Bonner (1984) | 38 Children 6–12 years old, (13%) ethnic minorities, (87%) Caucasian | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Boyd Ritsher (2003) | 127 Mental health patients, White (62.1%), Black or African American (26.4%) | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Breda and Riemer (2012) | 503 Youths and caregivers (sample 1), 197 youth and 174 caregivers (sample 2) White (58%), between 13 and 15 years old | General | X (P) | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Britt et al. (2008) | 203 College student, 88% White, 9% Black, 5% Asian, 28% M, 72% F, mean age 19. Study 2: US Army soldiers N = 3648, 66% White, 23% Black, 11% Hispanic, 3% Asian, 97% | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Brohan et al. (2013) | 85 Adults (37.2% White British, 18.6% Black British, 14.0% Black African, 12.8% Black Caribbean, 14.0% other) | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Bulanda et al. (2014) | 120 Middle school students | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Burns and Rapee (2006) | 202 Year 11 students | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Bussing et al. (2012) | 148 Adolescents, 161 parents, 122 teachers, 138 health professionals, 70+ % White for each group | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Chan et al. (2010) | 5857 Adolescents from secondary schools in Hong Kong | DSM culturally specific | X (S,P) | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Chhim (2012) | 511 Cambodian adult refugees with trauma history | Culturally specific | X (S,P, I) | X | |||||||||||||
| Cohen (1999) | N = 81. 72.8% White, 24.7% Asian, 2.5% other, 29.6% M, mean age 40.3 | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Cohen and Struening (1962) | Employees (n = 541, 653) at Veterans Administration neuropsychiatric hospitals | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Coleman et al. (2009) | 1318 Children of the general public | DSM | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Cooper et al. (2000) | 76 Adult patients 36% African American 64% White |
General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Corrigan et al. (2015) | 44 High school students 60 High school students 90 College students 18 Hotel desk clerks |
DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Corrigan et al. (2002) | 213 Community college and college students 43.9% European-American 41.5% African American 8.5 Latino 6.1% Other |
General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Crisp et al. (2000) | 1737 adults 95% White | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| D'Avanzo and Barab (1998) | 155 Cambodian refugee women | DSM | X(S,P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Davidson and Fristad (2006) | 50 Children, age 8-–1, and one of their parents, 96% Caucasian | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| De Leon et al. (1994) | 333 Adults 177 Black, 83 Hispanic, 70 White, 3 other |
Drug use | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Eisenbruch (1990) | 261 College students | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Feldman and Crandall (2007) | 281 Undergrads 85% White | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Fischer and Turner (1970) | 492 Female and 468 male students (78 high school, 166 nursing, 145 summer college, 236 community college, 113 liberal arts college, 222 university) | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Fox et al. (2013) | 1300 Households with children | DSM | X(P) | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Gabbidon et al. (2013) | 117 Adults (95.5% White) | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Garratt et al. (2011) | 17,080 Parents of children receiving MH care (94+% Norwegian) | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Gitlin et al. (2012) | 153 Older African American senior center members | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Givens et al. (2007) | 755 Patients equal % of African American and White | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Golberstein et al. (2008) | 2782 Undergraduates. 60% White, 4% Black, 4% Hispanic, 24% Asian, 8% other | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Griffiths et al. (2011) | 617 Urban and rural Australian adults |
DSM | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Griffiths et al. (2008) | 1001 Australian adults, 5572 adults from the Australian Capital Territory and Queanbeyan, 487 psychologically distressed adults | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Groleau et al. (2006) | Original does not report | General | X (S,P) | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Grover et al. (2014) | 54 Patients | Culturally specific | Elicits client-defined expressions | X | |||||||||||||
| Haidet et al. (2008) | 272 Patients receiving primary care | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Heather and Rollnick (1993) | 174 Adults identified as excessive drinkers | DSM | X (P) | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) mental health locus of control | 226 Undergraduates 91% White |
General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) mental health locus of origin | 226 Undergraduates 91% White |
General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Hinton et al. (2013) | 226 Cambodian adult refugees | DSM culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Hinton et al. (2014) | 100 Treatment-seeking Cambodian refugees survivors of Cambodian genocide of 1975-1979 | DSM culturally specific | X (S,P,I) | X | |||||||||||||
| Hinton et al. (2009) | Cambodian refugees | DSM culturally specific | X (S) | X | |||||||||||||
| Hirai and Clum (2000) | 216 Asian and American college students | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Hoge et al. (2004) | 4 Combat infantry units, 2350 before deployment army (70% White, 8% Black, 13% Hispanic, 8% Other), 3671 after deployment (66% White, 12% Black, 14% Hispanic, 7% Other) | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Horvath and Greenberg (1989) | Study 1: 29 therapist and client Study 2: 36 adult clients Study 3: 25 therapist and client | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Johnston and Freeman (2002) | 72 Mothers, 41 fathers of 7- to 12-year-old boys with ADHD | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||
| Jorm et al. (1997) | 2 Nationally representative sample of Australian adults (n = 893) and (n = 903) | DSM | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Kazdin et al. (1997) | 260 Children and their families 63.5% White, 26.9% African American, 6.9% Hispanic, <3% other |
General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Kellison et al. (2010) | 301 Adolescents at high and low risk for ADHD | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| King et al. (2007) | 201 Mental health service users, 79% White, 5.5% Black, 3.4% Indian Bangladeshi, 8.9% other |
General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| King et al. (1996) | Study 1: 151 parents Study 2: 29 parents Study 3: 14 parents |
General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Kleinknecht et al. (1997) | 181 US students and 161 Japanese students | Culturally specific | X (S,P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Komiya et al. (2000) | 308–311 College students, Caucasian (87%), African American (8%), Hispanic American (2%), Asian American (1%), Multiracial American (2%), Native American (<1%) | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Kuhl et al. (1997) | 280 High school students, 84% White, 10% Asian, 4% Hispanic, 0.4% Black, 2.1% not indicated | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Kushner and Sher (1989) | Clinical sample (n = 92) Nonclinical sample: (n = 501) | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Lee and Wong (1995) | 10 Undergraduate students in Hong Kong | Culturally specific | X (P) | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Lee et al. (2014) | 701 Children and adolescents; 57% White, 17% Hispanic, 16% Black, 5% Asian/Pacific Islander | DSM | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Link (1987) | 429 Community residents and 164 psychiatric patients ethnically mixed sample | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Liu et al. (2014) | Study 1: 312 Chinese adults Study 2: 227 Chinese adults |
DSM Culturally specific | X (S,P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Lloyd et al. (1998) | 86 British adults (35% White, 65% British Caribbean) | General | Elicits client-defined expression | ||||||||||||||
| Mackenzie et al. (2004) | Study 1: 206 adults, 92.7% White Study 2: 297 undergraduates Study 3: 23 undergraduates |
General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Mak and Cheung (2008) | 108 Chinese adults | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Makanjuola (1987) | 30 Adult patients in the psychiatric unit of a hospital previously diagnosed by a Yoruba traditional healer as suffering from “Ode-Ori” | Culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Martin et al. (2007) | 1393 Respondents of the National Stigma Study—Children | DSM General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Masuda et al. (2009) | Study 1: 139 undergraduate students (76% White) Study 2: 297 undergraduate students; (44% White) |
General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Mathews (2011) | 842 Singaporean students | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| McConnaughy et al. (1983) | 155 Adult outpatients | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Min et al. (2009) | 89 Adult Koreans diagnosed as having major depressive disorder | Culturally specific | X (S,P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Mollica et al. (1992) | 55 Cambodian, 20 Laotian, 16 Vietnamese adults | Trauma | X (P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Moses (2009) | 60 Adolescents and parents, 57% White | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Moses (2011) | 102 Youth at a child and adolescent inpatient program 25.5% non-White | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Moss-Morris et al. (2002) | 711 Patients diagnosed with various illnesses | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Mukolo and Heninger (2011) | National Stigma Study—Children: nationally representative sample of US adults (N = 1372) | DSM | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Murguia et al. (2000) | 100 Latino adults | General health | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Nock and Photos (2006) | 76 Parents or legal guardians (60.9% European-American, 26.6% African American, 6.3% Hispanic, and 6.3% biracial) | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Norberg et al. (2011) | 599 Undergraduates, Caucasian = 81.6%, African American = 8.2%, Asian American = 3.4%, Native American = 1.8%, Latino = 1.6%, Other = 3.2% | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Paradis et al. (2009) | 208 College students, 71% White, 8% Black, 10% Hispanic, 4% Asian, 6% other | Culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Pescosolido (2013) | 19,508 Adults, Argentina (n = 1420), Bangladesh (n = 1501), Belgium (n = 1166), Bulgaria (n = 1121), Brazil (n = 1522), Cyprus (n = 804), Germany (n = 1255), Spain (n = 1206), Great Britain (n = 1030), Hungary (n = 1252), Iceland (n = 1033), South Korea (n = 1003), New Zealand (n = 1020), Philippines (n = 1200), USA (n = 1425), South Africa n = 1550) | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Phan et al. (2004) | (n = 185) (n = 185) (n = 98) Vietnamese patients of MH services | DSM culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Phillips et al. (2000) | 245 Chinese caregivers of 135 schizophrenic patients | DSM | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Pinfold et al. (2003) | 472 Secondary school students | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Pinto et al. (2012) | Sample 1: 105 high school students (78% White) Sample 2: 105 high school students (75.2% White) |
General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Pirutinsky et al. (2010) | 91 Orthodox Jews | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Prince (1962) | 234 Participants aged between 11 and 20 years | Culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Raftery et al. (2010) | 59 Youths (46.7% White) | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Rose et al. (2004) | 400 Prospective jurors, 43% African American, 45% White, 4% Hispanic | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Rostain et al. (1993) | 116 Families (112 mothers, 84 fathers) with children aged 4–15 | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Ruedell, et al. (2009) | 5 Bangladeshi and 6 White British adults | General client defined | X (S, P) | ||||||||||||||
| Ryan et al. (1995) | 109 Patients at outpatient alcohol and drug treatment unit | General alcohol use | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Salmán et al. (1998) | 156 Hispanic clients seeking treatment for anxiety | Culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Scior and Furnham (2011) | Study 1: 114 participants; 29.8% White British, 27.2% South Asian, 20.2% Black African Caribbean Study 2: 1376 participants; 33.8% White British, 9.3% South Asian, 7.1% Black African Caribbean, 31.5% East Asians, 7.8% Indian citizens |
DSM | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Simon et al. (2006) | 733 Adults from different medical fields: depression, gynecology, urology, anesthesia, general practice | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Sonuga-Barke and Balding (1993) | 88 British parents, 93% White | DSM general | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Stone and Finlay (2008) | 179 Adults, 42.5% White, 45.3% Black, 45 Asian | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Sun et al. (2014) | 535 Chinese psychiatrists, nurses, family members, and general public | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Taylor and Dear (1981) | 375 Undergraduate students | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Thurston et al. (2015) | 251 Parents, 49% Black, 51% White; 49% fathers, 51% mothers | DSM General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||||||||
| Tinsley et al. (1980) | 446 College students | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Tsang et al. (2006) | 108 Adults, DSM diagnosis of psychosis in Hong Kong | DSM | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Van der Helm et al. (2012) | 264 Adolescents in Dutch secure juvenile facilities | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Vogel et al. (2006) | All college samples Study 1: 583 Study 2: 470 Study 3: 546 Study 4: 217 Study 5: 655; over 86% White for all |
General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Vogel and Wester (2003) | Study 1: 209 college students Study 2: 268 college students; >88% White for both studies | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Wang and Lai (2008) | 3047 Adults in Canada | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Weiss (1997) | None reported | General client defined | Elicits client-defined expression | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Wilson et al. (2005) (general help seeking) | 218 Youth aged 12–19 | General | X | X | X | X | |||||||||||
| Wilson et al. (2005) (actual help seeking) | 218 Youth aged 12–19 | General | X | X | |||||||||||||
| Wong et al. (2004) | 125 Chinese caregivers | General | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Wong et al. (2012) | 34 Chinese adults with a diagnosis of depression, 29 clinicians | DSM culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||
| Yang, et al. (2009) | 90 Chinese-Americans | DSM | X | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Yap et al. (2014) | 6019 Members of the general community in Australia | DSM | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Yeh and Hough (1997) | Parents of 1338 youths (270 African American, 109 Asian Pacific Islander, 372 Latino, 587 White) | General | X (emotional and behavioral problems) | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Zung (1965) | Not provided | DSM culturally specific | X (S, P) | X | |||||||||||||