Table 2. Conceptualization of the distress: expressions of distress (idioms of distress and symptom expression across cultures).
| Author | Sample | Method | General mental distress or DSM based | Somatic symptoms | Psychological | Spirituality related | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| ||||||||
| Cognitive, emotional | Interpersonal, relational | Behavioral | ||||||
| Alcázar-Olán et al. 2016 | 504 Adolescents from a public school in Mexico City with a mean age of 13.75 | Survey | Anger | X | X | |||
| Austin and Huberty (1993) | 50 Children between 8 and 12 with epilepsy or asthma | Survey | General | X | ||||
| Batterham et al. (2013) | 789 Staff and students in college | Survey | Suicide | X | ||||
| Bird et al. (1993) | 182 White, Black, Hispanic, Asian and Native American children aged 9–17 | Survey | General | X | ||||
| Breda and Riemer (2012) | Sample 1: 503 youths 13–15 years old and caregivers Sample 2: 197 youth 13–15 years old and 174 caregiversWhite 58% |
Survey | General | X | ||||
| Burns and Rapee (2006) | 202 Year 11 students from two private, single-sex schools | Survey + vignette | Depression | X | ||||
| Chan et al. (2010) | 5857 Adolescents from secondary schools in Hong Kong | Survey | Depression Anxiety | X | X | |||
| Chhim (2012) | 511 Cambodian adult refugees with trauma history | Survey | Baskbat (broken courage) | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | |
| D'Avanzo and Barab (1998) | 155 Cambodian adult refugee women | Survey | Depression Anxiety | X | X | |||
| Groleau et al. (2006) | Original does not report | Semi-structured interview | General (client defined) | Open-ended responses (client-defined expressions) | ||||
| Grover et al. (2014) | 54 Patients | Semi-structured interview | Dhat syndrome | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | |
| Heather and Rollnick (1993) | 174 Adults identified as excessive drinkers | Survey | Alcohol use | X | ||||
| Hinton et al. (2013) | 226 Traumatized Cambodian adult refugees | Survey | Trauma | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | |
| Hinton et al. (2009) | Cambodian adult refugees | Survey | Anger | X, culturally specific | ||||
| Hinton et al. (2014) | 100 Treatment-seeking Cambodian refugee Survivors of the Cambodian genocide of 1975–1979 | Survey | Prolonged grief | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | X |
| Kleinknecht et al. (1997) | 181 US students and 161 Japanese students | Survey | Taijin Kyofusho | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | ||
| Lee and Wong (1995) | 10 Undergraduate students in Hong Kong | Survey | Shenjing Shuairuo | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | |
| Liu et al. (2014) | Study 1: 312 Chinese adults Study 2: 227 Chinese adults |
Survey | PTSD | X, culturally specific | X culturally specific | X | X | |
| Lloyd et al. (1998) | 86 British adults 35% White 65% British Caribbean |
Semi-structured interview | General (client-defined illness) | Open-ended responses (client-defined expressions) | ||||
| Makanjuola (1987) | 30 Adult patients in the psychiatric unit of a hospital previously diagnosed by a Yoruba traditional healer as suffering from “Ode-Ori” | Interview | Ode-Ori | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | |||
| Min et al. (2009) | 89 Adult Koreans diagnosed as having major depressive disorder | Survey | Hwa-byung | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | |||
| Mollica et al. (1992) | 55 Cambodian, 20 Laotian, 16 Vietnamese adults | Survey | Trauma | X | ||||
| Paradis et al. (2009) | 208 Students from a small liberal arts college 71% White, 8% Black, 10% Hispanic, 4% Asian, 6% other |
Survey | Unusual sleep | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | |||
| Phan et al. (2004) | 3 Different groups of Vietnamese subjects for 3 studies patients of MH services. | Survey | Depression Anxiety | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | X | X | |
| Prince (1962) | 234 Participants aged between 11 and 20 years with a mean age of 14.20 | Survey | Brain fag | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | |||
| Ruedell, et al. (2009) | 5 Bangladeshi and 6 White British adults | Semi-structured interview | Open-ended responses (probes for somatic, phenomenal, perceptual, mental, cognitive, emotional, behavioral, interpersonal, personal) | |||||
| Salman et al. (1998) | 156 Hispanic adults (87 females, 22 males) seeking treatment at an anxiety disorders clinic 46% Dominican Republic, 28 Puerto Rico, 35 from other countries |
Survey | Ataque de Nervios | X | X, culturally specific | X | ||
| Weiss (1997) | Not reported | Semi-structured interview | General (client defined) | Open-ended responses (client-defined expressions) | ||||
| Wong et al. (2012) | 34 Adult Chinese immigrants Chinese-Americans 29 Clinicians | Survey | Depression | X, culturally specific | X, culturally specific | |||
| Yeh and Hough (1997) | Parents of 1338 youths 270 African American 109 Asian Pacific Islander 372 Latino 587 White | Survey | General | X | ||||
| Zung (1965) | Not provided | Survey | Depression | X | X, culturally specific | X | ||