Table 3. Conceptualization of the distress: causal beliefs (explanations of mental distress and illness).
| Author | Sample | Method | General mental distress DSM basedCulturally specific | Causes | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||||||
| Biological genetic physical | Environmental | Psychological | Culture | Body and nature | Supernatural spiritual, karmic, moral | ||||||||
|
| |||||||||||||
| Past events trauma | Cognitive behavioral emotional | Personality | Other | Family | |||||||||
| Abera et al. (2015) | 532 Ethiopian adults | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Angermeyer and Klusmann (1988) | 198 Patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective psychosis, affective psychoses | Checklist | Psychoses | X | X | ||||||||
| Angermeyer and Matschinger (1996) | 476 Relatives caring for a family member with schizophrenia | Survey | Schizophrenia | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
| Angold et al. (1998) | General population sample of 1015, 9-, 11-, and 13-year-olds and their parents | Interview | General | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Austin and Huberty (1993) | 50 Children between 8 and 12 with epilepsy or asthma | Survey | General | X | |||||||||
| Barker et al. (1983) | 126 Patients at a psychiatric center | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Bulanda et al. (2014) | 120 Middle school students | General | X | ||||||||||
| Cohen and Struening (1962) | Employees (n = 541, 653) at two large VA neuropsychiatric hospitals | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Coleman et al. (2009) | 1318 Children of the general public | Vignette + survey | Depression ADHD Asthma |
X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Crisp et al. (2000) | 1737 adults, age 65 and older | Survey | Severe depression, panic attacks, schizophrenia, dementia, eating disorder, alcohol addiction, and drug addiction | X | |||||||||
| Eisenbruch (1990) | 261 College students | Interview | General MH (includes indigenous views on mental disorder) | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Feldman and Crandall (2007) | 281 Undergrads 85% White |
Survey + vignette | 40 Mental disorders from the DSM | X | |||||||||
| Groleau et al. (2006) | Original does not report | Semi-structured interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes client-defined causes) | |||||||||
| Haidet et al. (2008) | 272 Patients receiving primary care | Survey | General | X | X | ||||||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) Mental Health Locus of Origin | 226 Undergraduates, 91% White | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Johnston and Freeman (2002) | 72 Mothers, 41 fathers of 7- to 12-year-old boys with ADHD | Survey | ADHD | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Lee and Wong (1995) | 10 Undergraduate students in Hong Kong | Survey | Shenjing Shauiruo | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Lloyd et al. (1998) | Sample 1: 86 British 35% White 65% British Caribbean |
Semi-structured interview | General (client views on mental disorder) | Open-ended responses (client-defined causes) | |||||||||
| Martin et al. (2007) | 1393 Respondents of the National Stigma Study—Children | Survey + vignette | ADHD Depression Normal troubles | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Mathews (2011) | 842 Singaporean students | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Mukolo and Heflinger (2011) | 1372 Nationally representative sample of adults | Survey + vignette | ADHD Depression Normal troubles | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Murguia, et al. (2000) | 100 Latino adults | Survey + vignette | General health | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Paradis et al. (2009) | 208 College students 71% White 8% Black 10% Hispanic 4% Asian 6% other |
Survey | Unusual sleep | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Pescosolido (2013) | 19,508 adults Argentina (n = 1420) Bangladesh (n = 1501) Belgium (n = 1166) Bulgaria (n = 1121) Brazil (n = 1522) Cyprus (n = 804) Germany (n = 1255) Spain (n = 1206) Great Britain (n = 1030) Hungary (n = 1252) Iceland (n = 1033) South Korea (n = 1003) New Zealand (n = 1020) Philippines (n = 1200) USA (n = 1425) South Africa (n = 1550) |
Survey + vignette | Depression schizophrenia | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Phillips et al. (2000) | 245 Chinese family members who were principal caregivers of 135 schizophrenic patients | Open-ended interview | Schizophrenia | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
| Pinfold et al. (2003) | 472 Secondary school students | Survey | General | X | |||||||||
| Pirutinsky et al. (2010) | 91 Orthodox Jews | Survey + vignette | OCD | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Ruedell et al. (2009) | 5 Bangladeshi and 6 White British adults | Interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes for psychosocial, perceptual, emotional, interpersonal, supernatural, spiritual, imbalance, spiritual ill-will, behavioral, situational, natural, physical immunological, genetic, economical) | |||||||||
| Scior and Furnham (2011) | Study 1: 114 participants; 29.8% White British, 27.2% South Asian, 20.2% Black African Caribbean Study 2: 1376 participants; 33.8% White British, 9.3% South Asian, 7.1% Black African Caribbean, 31.5% East Asians, 7.8% Indian citizens |
Survey + vignette | Mild intellectual disability Schizophrenia |
X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Sonuga-Barke and Balding (1993) | 88 British parents 93% White | Survey + vignette | General, conduct disorder, ADHD | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Sun et al. (2014) | 535 Chinese psychiatrists, nurses, family members, and general public | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Taylor and Dear (1981) | 375 Undergraduate students | Survey | General | X | X | ||||||||
| Wang and Lai (2008) | 3047 Adults | Survey | Depression | X | |||||||||
| Weiss (1997) | Not reported | Semi-structured interview | General (utilizes client definitions to inquire) | Open-ended responses (probes for biological, psychosocial, supernatural, natural, and environmental) | |||||||||
| Wong et al. (2004) | 125 Chinese caregivers | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||||||
| Yeh and Hough (1997) | Parents of 1338 youths (270 African American, 109 Asian Pacific Islander, 372 Latino, 587 White) | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |