Table 4. Conceptualization of the distress: illness identity and the meaning of the illness to self.
| Author | Sample | Method | General mental distress DSM based Culturally specific | Illness identity | Meaning of the illness to self | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||
| Beliefs about characteristics of individuals with mental distress | Attitudes and expected responses of the individual with mental distress | Agency, control beliefs of the individual with mental distress | Perceived norms (of the external responses to individuals with mental distress) | Beliefs about close others (courtesy stigma) of individuals with mental distress | |||||
| Angold et al. (1998) | General population sample of 1015, 9-, 11-, and 13-year-olds and their parents | Interview | General | X | |||||
| Austin and Huberty (1993) | 50 Children between 8 and 12 with epilepsy or asthma | Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Barker et al. (1983) | 126 Patients at a psychiatric center | Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Batterham et al. (2013) | 789 Staff and students in college | Survey | Suicide | X | X | ||||
| Boyd Ritsher (2003) | 127 Mental health outpatients, White or Caucasian (62.1%), Black or African American (26.4%) | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Breda and Riemer (2012) | Sample 1: 503 youths 13–15 years old and caregivers Sample 2: 197 youth 13–15 years old and 174 caregivers, White (58%) |
Survey | General | X | |||||
| Brohan et al. (2013) | 85 Adults (37.2% White British, 18.6% Black British, 14.0% Black African, 12.8% Black Caribbean, 14.0% other) | Interview | X | X | |||||
| Bulanda et al. (2014) | 120 Middle school students | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Burns and Rapee (2006) | 202 Year 11 students from two private, single-sex schools | Survey + vignette | Depression | X | |||||
| Cohen and Struening (1962) | Two samples of employees (n = 541, 653) at two large Veterans Administration neuropsychiatric hospitals, | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Corrigan et al. (2015) | 44 High school students, 60 high school students, 90 college students, 18 hotel desk clerks | Survey + vignette | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Corrigan et al. (2002) | 213 Community college, and college students 43.9% European-American, 41.5% African American, 8.5 Latino, and 6.1% other |
Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Crisp et al. (2000) | 1737 Adults 95% White |
Survey | Depression, panic attacks, schizophrenia, dementia, eating disorder, alcohol addiction, and drug addiction | X | X | X | |||
| Davidson and Fristad (2006) | 50 Children, age 8–11, with one of their parents, 96% Caucasian | Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| De Leon et al. (1994) | 333 Adults 177 Blacks, 83 Hispanic, 70 White, 3 other race |
Survey | Drug use | X | X | X | X | ||
| Feldman and Crandall (2007) | 281 Undergrads 85% White |
Survey + vignette | 40 DSM mental disorders | X | X | X | X | ||
| Fox et al. (2013) | 1300 Households with children | Survey | Depression, suicide | X | X | X | |||
| Gabbidon et al. (2013) | 117 Adults 95.5% White |
Survey | General | X | |||||
| Griffiths et al. (2011) | 617 Urban and rural Australian adults |
Survey | Anxiety disorder | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Griffiths et al. (2008) | 1001 Australian adults 5572 Australian adults 487 Psychologically distressed subset |
Survey | Depression | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Groleau et al. (2006) | Original does not report | Semi-structured interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes for client's meaning of the illness, views of individuals with illness, other's response to individual with illness) | |||||
| Haidet et al. (2008) | 272 Patients receiving primary care | Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Heather and Rollnick (1993) | 174 Adults identified as excessive drinkers 94.6% Male, 6% Female |
Survey | Alcohol use | X | X | ||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) mental health locus of control | 226 Undergraduates 91% White |
Survey | General | X | |||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) mental health locus of origin | 226 Undergraduates 91% White |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Hirai and Clum (2000) | 216 Asian and American college students | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | X |
| Johnston and Freeman (2002) | 72 Mothers and 41 fathers of 7- to 12-year-old boys with ADHD | Survey | ADHD | X | X | X | |||
| Jorm et al. (1997) | 2 Nationally representative sample of Australian adults (n = 893) and (n = 903) | Survey | Depression | X | |||||
| Kellison et al. (2010) | 301 Adolescents | Survey | ADHD | X | X | X | |||
| King et al. (2007) | 201 Mental health service users; 79% White, 5.5% Black, 3.4% Indian/Bangladeshi, 8.9% other | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Komiya et al. (2000) | 308–311 College students Caucasian (87%), African American (8%), Hispanic American (2%), Asian American (1%), Multiracial American (2%), Native American (<1%) |
Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Lee and Wong (1995) | 10 Undergraduate students in Hong Kong | Survey | Shenjing Shuairuo | X | X | X | |||
| Lee et al. (2014) | 701 Children and adolescents 57% White, 17% Hispanic, 16% Black, 5% Asian/Pacific Islander |
Survey | ADHD and depression | X | X | ||||
| Link (1987) | First-treatment contact patients 37.3% White, 35.8% Black, 26.9% Hispanic |
Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Lloyd et al. (1998) | 86 British adults 35% White 65% British Caribbean |
Semi-structured interview | General | Open-ended responses (probes for consequences, severity and its effects on the body, emotions, social network, home life and on work,) | |||||
| Mackenzie et al. (2004) | Study 1: 206 adults 92.7% White Study 2: 297 undergraduate students Study 3: 23 undergraduate students |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Mak and Cheung (2008) | 108 Chinese adults (20 males, 88 females), average age 54.21 | Survey | General | X | |||||
| Martin et al. (2007) | 1393 Respondents of the National Stigma Study—Children | Survey | ADHD, depression, “normal troubles,” and asthma | X | X | ||||
| Masuda et al. (2009) | Study 1: 139 undergraduate students 76% White Study 2: 297 undergraduate students; 44% White |
Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Mcconnaughy et al. (1983) | 155 Adult outpatients | Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Moses (2009) | 60 Adolescents and parents 57% White |
Survey and qualitative questions | General | X | X | X | X | ||
| Moses (2011) | 102 Youth at a child and adolescent inpatient program 25.5% non-White |
Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Moss-Morris et al. (2002) | 711 Patients diagnosed with asthma, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic pain, acute pain, myocardial infarction, multiple sclerosis, and HIV | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | \ | |
| Pescosolido (2013) | 19,508 adults Argentina (n = 1420) Bangladesh (n = 1501) Belgium (n = 1166) Bulgaria (n = 1121) Brazil (n = 1522) Cyprus (n = 804) Germany (n = 1255) Spain (n = 1206) Great Britain (n = 1030) Hungary (n = 1252) Iceland (n = 1033) South Korea (n = 1003) New Zealand (n = 1020) Philippines (n = 1200) USA n = 1425) South Africa (n = 1550) | Survey + vignette | General | X | X | X | |||
| Pinfold et al. (2003) | 472 Secondary school students | Survey | General | X | X | ||||
| Pinto et al. (2012) | Sample 1: 105 high school students (78% White) Sample 2: 105 high school students (75.2% White) |
Survey | General | X | |||||
| Pirutinsky et al. (2010) | 91 Orthodox Jews | Survey + vignette | General | X | X | X | |||
| Rostain et al. (1993) | 116 Families (112 mothers, 84 fathers), 82% parents of boys ranging from 4 to 15 years old | Survey | ADHD | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Ruedell et al. (2009) | 5 Bangladeshi and 6 White British adults | Semi-structured interview | General (client defined) | Open-ended responses (probes for consequences of illness on self, social, financial, physical, behavioral) | |||||
| Ryan et al. (1995) | 109 patients at outpatient alcohol and drug treatment unit | Survey | Alcohol use, general | X | |||||
| Scior and Furnham (2011) | 114 and 1376 Participants; White British, South Asian, Black African and Caribbean, East Asian, Indian citizens | Survey + vignette | Intellectual disability and schizophrenia | X | |||||
| Stone and Finlay (2008) | 179 Adults 42.5% White 45.3% Black |
Survey + vignette | Schizophrenia | X | X | X | |||
| Sun et al. (2014) | 535 Chinese psychiatrists, nurses, family members, and general public | Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Taylor and Dear (1981) | 375 Undergraduate students | Survey | General | X | X | X | |||
| Thurston et al. (2015) | 251 Parents 49% Black, 51% White 49% fathers, 51% mothers |
Survey + vignette | Anxiety ADHD, general | X | X | X | X | ||
| Wang and Lai (2008) | 3047 Adults | Survey | Depression | X | X | X | X | ||
| Weiss (1997) | None reported | Semi-structured interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes for stigma, disclosure, self-esteem, marriage relations and prospects) | |||||
| Yang et al. (2009) | 90 Chinese-Americans | Survey + vignette | Schizophrenia, MDD, diabetes | X | |||||
| Yap et al. (2015) | 6019 Members of the general community in Australia | Survey + vignette | Depression suicidal Schizophrenia Social phobia PTSD | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Yeh and Hough (1997) | Parents of 1338 youths (270 African American, 109 Asian Pacific Islander, 372 Latino, 587 White) | Survey | General (emotional or behavioral problems) | X | X | ||||