Table 5. Beliefs and experiences of seeking help.
| Citation | Sample | Method | General mental distress | Help-seeking beliefs | Relational beliefs | Engagement behaviors: past or current experiences of service encounters | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Behavior beliefs | Perceived norm | Willingness to seek professional help (agency, control beliefs, intention) | Other help | |||||||||
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| DSM based | Efficacy of professional help | Stigma (public, self, courtesy) of seeking professional help | Agency | Control factors | Intention | Alternative healing approaches | Provider-client relationship | |||||
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| Culturally specific | Facilitating factors | Barriers | ||||||||||
| Barker et al. (1983) | 126 Patients at a psychiatric center | Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Bonner (1984) | 38 Children 6–12 years old 13% Ethnic minorities 87% Caucasian |
Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Breda and Riemer (2012) | Sample 1: 503 youths 13–15 years old and caregivers Sample 2: 197 youth 13–15 years old and 174 caregivers White (58%) |
Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Britt et al. (2008) | 203 Students and 3648 US Army soldiers; White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian | Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Burns and Rapee (2006) | 202 Year 11 students from two private, single-sex schools | Survey + vignette | Depression | X | X | |||||||
| Bussing et al. (2012) | 148 Adolescents 161 Parents 122 Teachers 138 Health professionals 70% + Caucasian for each category |
Survey | ADHD | X | X | X | ||||||
| Cohen and Struening (1962) | Two samples of employees (n = 541, 653) at two large VA neuropsychiatric hospitals | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Cohen (1999) | 81 Adults, White, Asian, and other | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Cooper et al. (2000) | 76 Patients, 36% African American 64% White |
Survey | Depression | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
| Corrigan et al. (2015) | 44 High school students, 60 high school students, 90 college students, 18 hotel desk clerks | Survey + vignette | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Davidson and Fristad (2006) | 50 Children aged 8–11 with one of their parents, 96% Caucasian | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| De Leon et al. (1994) | 333 Adults 177 Black 83 Hispanic 70 White 3 Other race |
Survey | Drug use | X | X | X | ||||||
| Fischer and Turner (1970) | 492 Female and 468 male students | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Fox et al. (2013) | 1300 Households with children | Survey | Depression, suicide | X | ||||||||
| Garratt et al. (2011) | 17,080 Parents of children receiving MH care, over 94% Norwegian | Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Gitlin et al. (2012) | 153 Older African American senior center members | Survey + vignette | Depression | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Givens et al. (2007) | 755 Patients, equal numbers of African American and White | Survey + vignette | Depression | X | X | |||||||
| Golberstein et al. (2008) | 2782 Undergraduate and graduate students 60% White 4% Black 23.6% Asian 3.6% Hispanic |
Survey | General emotional or mental problem | X | ||||||||
| Groleau et al. (2006) | Original does not report | Semi-structured interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes for treatment by doctor, healer, other therapy, treatment, help or care) | ||||||||
| Haidet et al. (2008) | 16 Patients and 272 patients | Survey | General health and mental distress | X | X | |||||||
| Hill and Bale (1980) mental health locus of control | 226 Undergraduates, 91% White | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Hirai and Clum (2000) | 216 Asian and American college students | Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Hoge et al. (2004) | 2530 Army members 815 Marines |
Survey | PTSD | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
| Horvath and Greenberg (1989) | 29 Graduate students and counselor-client dyads | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Johnston and Freeman (2002) | 72 Mothers and 41 fathers of 7- to 12-year-old boys with ADHD | Survey | ADHD | X | X | |||||||
| Jorm et al. (1997) | 2 Nationally representative sample of Australian adults (n = 893) and (n = 903) | Survey | Depression | X | ||||||||
| Kazdin et al. (1997) | 260 Children and their families 63.5% White 26.9% African American 6.9% Hispanic, <3% other mixed |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| King et al. (1996) | 151, 29, and 14 Mothers, fathers, and children | Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Komiya et al. (2000) | 308-311 College students 87% Caucasian 8% African American 8% Hispanic 2% Asian American, 1% Multiracial 2% Native American |
Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Kuhl et al. (1997) | 280 High school students White, Asian, Hispanic, and Black; middle-class background |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Kushner and Sher (1989) | 92 Clinical and 501 non-clinical subjects | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Lee and Wong (1995) | 10 Undergraduate students in Hong Kong | Survey | Shenjing Shuairuo | X | X | |||||||
| Link (1987) | First-treatment contact patients 37.3% White, 35.8% Black, 26.9% Hispanic |
Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Lloyd et al. (1998) | 86 British adultsb35% White 65% British Caribbean |
Semi-structured interview | General | Open-ended responses (probes for help-seeking behaviors and the role of the doctor/healer) | ||||||||
| Mackenzie et al. (2004) | Study 1: 206 adults, 92.7% White Study 2: 297 undergraduate students Study 3: 23 undergraduate students |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
| McConnaughy et al. (1983) | 155 Adult outpatients | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Moss-Morris et al. (2002) | 711 Patients diagnosed with asthma, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic pain, acute pain, myocardial infarction, multiple sclerosis, and HIV | Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Nock and Photos (2006) | 76 Parents or legal guardians 60.9% European-American 26.6% African American 6.3% Hispanic, 6.3% biracial |
Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Norberg et al. (2011) | 599 Undergraduate students 82% Caucasian 8% African American 3% Asian American, 2% Native American 2% Latino 3% Other |
Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Pescosolido (2013) | 19,508 Adults Argentina (n = 1420) Bangladesh (n = 1501) Belgium (n = 1166) Bulgaria (n = 1121) Brazil (n = 1522) Cyprus (n = 804) Germany (n = 1255) Spain (n = 1206) Great Britain (n = 1030) Hungary (n = 1252) Iceland (n = 1033) South Korea (n = 1003) New Zealand (n = 1020) Philippines (n = 1200) USA (n = 1425) South Africa (n = 1550) |
Survey + vignette | DSM | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Raftery et al. (2010) | 59 Youth patients | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Rose et al. (2004) | 400 Prospective jurors 43% African American 45% White 4% Hispanic |
Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Rostain et al. (1993) | 116 Families 112 Mothers, 84 fathers of boys ranging from 4 to 15 years old |
Survey | ADHD | X | X | |||||||
| Ruedell et al. (2009) | 5 Bangladeshi and 6 White British adults | Semi-structured interview | General client defined | Open-ended responses (probes for self-help, support from others, medication, spiritual help, herbal remedies, seeing traditional healers) | ||||||||
| Ryan et al. (1995) | 109 Consecutive admissions at outpatient alcohol and drug treatment unit (76% male, 24% female), mean age 30.5 years | Survey | Alcohol use, general | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Scior and Furnham (2011) | 114 and 1376 Participants; White British, South Asian, Black African and Caribbean, East Asian, Indian citizens | Survey + vignette | Intellectual disability and schizophrenia | X | X | |||||||
| Simon et al. (2006) | 733 Medical patients | Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Sun et al. (2014) | 535 Chinese psychiatrists, nurses, family members, and general public | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Taylor and Dear (1981) | 375 Undergraduate students | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Thurston et al. (2015) | 251 Parents 49% Black 51% White |
Survey + vignette | Anxiety ADHD, general | |||||||||
| Tinsley et al. (1980) | 446 College students | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Tsang et al. 2006 | 108 Adults, DSM diagnosis of psychosis in Hong Kong | Survey | DSM | X | ||||||||
| Van der Helm et al. (2012) | 264 Adolescents in Dutch secure juvenile facilities | Survey | General | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Vogel and Wester (2003) | Study 1: 209 college students 89% White 3% Black 3% Asian 2% Hispanic 3% Other Study 2: 268 college students, 88% White 3% Black, 6% Asian 2% Hispanic 1% Other |
Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Vogel et al. (2006) | Study 1: 583 students 86% White Study 2: 470 students 92% White Study 3: 546 students 89% White Study 4: 217 students 88% White Study 5: 655 91% White |
Survey | General | X | X | |||||||
| Weiss (1997) | Not reported | Semi-structured interview | General (client definition) | Open-ended responses (probes for family support and home remedies, practitioners, Western-styled health professionals and specialists, traditional healers) | ||||||||
| Wilson et al. (2005) General Help Seeking | 218 Youth aged 12–19 | Survey | General | X | X | X | ||||||
| Wilson et al. (2005) Actual Help Seeking) | 218 Youth aged 12–19 | Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Wong et al. (2004) | 125 Chinese caregivers | Survey | General | X | ||||||||
| Yang, et al. (2009) | 90 Chinese-Americans | Survey + vignette | Schizophrenia, MDD, diabetes | X | ||||||||
| Yeh and Hough (1997) | Parents of 1338 youths 270 African American 109 Asian Pacific Islander 372 Latino 587 White |
Survey | General (emotional or behavioral problems) | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||