Figure 4.

Passive and active cues in the context of scaffold design parameters and cardiovascular systems. Passive cues define the physical environment in which the cells reside, such as fibre diameter (nano-fibres vs. micro-fibres), topography (isotropic vs. anisotropic), and substrate stiffness. Active cues directly impose mechanical stimulations to the cell, such as shear stress (${\tau }_w$), cyclic strain (${\epsilon }_{\theta }$), and residual stress (${\sigma }_{r,i}$).