Table 4.
Stroke Related Biomarkers Summary.
| Family | Biomarker | Expression Association | Stroke Clinical Value | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glial cells origin | S100-Beta | Associated with blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction | Diagnosis | [157,158,161,162,163,164,165] |
| Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) | Associated with the size of brain lesions, the neurological status and short-term functional outcome | Prognosis: outcome prediction | [157,161,162,166,167,168,169,170,171] | |
| Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) | Associated with worsened outcome | Prognosis: outcome prediction | [172,173,174,175] | |
| Neuronal cells origin | Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) | Associated with neurological outcomes and infarct volume | Prognosis: outcome prediction | [129,157,158,161,162,163,166,176,177] |
| Ubiquitin Carboxyl-terminal Hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1) | Associated with the extent of the neuronal injury | Prognosis: outcome prediction | [157,158,178,179,180,181] | |
| Creatinine Kinase-BB (CKBB) | Associated with the extent and severity of the brain damage and the recovery potential | Prognosis and recovery | [182,183] | |
| Heart muscle cells (cardio-myocytes) origin | B-Type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) | Associated with CEI ischemic stroke, increased mortality and second stroke indication | Prognosis: subtype classification and recovery: second stroke prevention | [87,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,124,156,184,185,186] |
| Blood vessels cells (myocytes) origin | Matrix Metallo-Proteinase 9 (MMP-9) | Associated with blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and second stroke indication | Diagnosis and recovery: second stroke prevention | [187,188,189,190,191] |
| General inflammatory cytokines and proteins | Interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1b (IL-1b), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) | Associated with CEI ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [166,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199] |
| Neutrophil Lymphocyte Ratios (NLR) | Associated with increased mortality and LAA ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification and recovery | [199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206] | |
| Cytoskeleton proteins | Neurofilaments (NF) | Associated with disconnected axons | Prognosis | [207,208,209] |
| Cleaved-tau (C-tau) | Associated with neuronal degeneration and disease progression | Prognosis | [157,158,172,210,211,212,213] | |
| Microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) | Associated with dendritic injury | Prognosis | [214,215,216,217] | |
| Alpha-II spectrin break-down products (SBDPs) | Associated with apoptosis and necrotic neuronal death | Prognosis | [157,218,219,220,221] | |
| Hemostatic proteins | D-dimer (DD) | Associated with CEI ischemic stroke subtype and recurrence strokes | Prognosis: subtype classification | [11,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240] |
| C-reactive protein (CRP) | Associated with AIS diagnosis, stroke severity and LAA ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [11,241,242,243,244,245] | |
| Fibrin monomer complex (FMC) | Associated with stroke early recognition and CEI ischemic stroke subtype | Diagnosis and prognosis: subtype classification | [246] | |
| Soluble fibrin (SF) | Associated with stroke early recognition and CEI ischemic stroke subtype | Diagnosis and prognosis: subtype classification | [246] | |
| Fibrinogen | Associated with stroke early recognition | Diagnosis | [246,247] | |
| Fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products (FDPs) | Associated with stroke early recognition | Diagnosis | [246] | |
| Von willebrand factor (vWF) | Associated with stroke early recognition and LAC ischemic stroke subtype | Diagnosis and prognosis: subtype classification | [247] | |
| Lipids origin | Triglycerides | Associated with LAA ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [248,249,250] |
| Low density lipoprotein (LDL)/High density lipoprotein (HDL) | Associated with LAA ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [248,249,250] | |
| Heart fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) | Associated with early diagnosis of stroke | Diagnosis | [251,252] | |
| Free fatty acid (FFA) | Associated with CEI ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [253] | |
| ApoA | Associated with LAA ischemic stroke subtype, and stroke severity | Prognosis: subtype classification and outcome prediction | [254,255] | |
| ApoE4 | Associated with ischemic stroke diagnosis (vs. hemorrhagic stroke) and with LAC and LAA ischemic stroke subtypes | Diagnosis and prognosis: subtype classification | [249,256] | |
| Metabolic proteins | lactate dehydrogenase (LD) | Associated with the extent and severity of the brain damage and the recovery potential | Prognosis and recovery | [182,257] |
| Albumin | Associated with CEI ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [258] | |
| Others | Decorin | Associated with LAA ischemic stroke subtype | Prognosis: subtype classification | [259] |