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. 2016 Jun 20;8(6):843–862. doi: 10.2217/epi-2016-0002

Figure 1. . Causes and consequences of elevated nuclear and cytoplasmic reactive oxygen species.

Figure 1. 

Many pathogenic factors and pathophysiological processes lead to an increase in cytoplasmic and nuclear ROS. ROS can be detoxified, function as second messengers or damaging agents, altering gene expression, inducing mutagenesis or cell death.

Stars indicate macromolecular damage.

3-DG: 3-deoxyglucosone; Ang II: Angiotensin II; CAT: Catalase; COX: Cyclooxygenase; ER: Endoplasmic reticulum; GAPDH: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GSH: Glutathione; LOX: Lipoxygenase; NO: Nitric oxide; NOS: Nitric oxide synthase; NOX: NADPH oxidase; PRDX: Peroxiredoxin; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; SOD*: Mutated SOD; TF: Transcription factor; TRX: Thioredoxin.