Table 3.

Description of techniques focused on syntax.

Technique	Objective	Description	Results
Specific Linguistic Treatment (for agrammatism).21	Produce grammatically correct sentences.	Pairs of pictures with the word or sentence (selected due to specific characteristics of the verbs). Steps: a) the examiner presents the picture verbalizing the word and the thematic role of the action, b) examiner uses words and pictures to demonstrate the construction of the verbalized sentence, c) patient produces a sentence about the picture they see and identifies the verb and the thematic role, d) patient builds and produces a sentence identifying the verb and the thematic role, e) patient must complete the sentence begun by the examiner (priming paradigm).	The data showed acquisition, generalization and maintenance of sentence production. Etiology and lesion size did not relate to differences in the behavioral pattern of these patients. The technique proved effective in the treatment of Broca's aphasia. More effective improvements were observed in patients with less severe aphasia, with social validity for this treatment.
Multisensory auditory and visual-verbal technique.31	Produce verbal language and understand oral and written language through the multisensory technique.	Steps: a) presentation of a sentence in both auditory and visual ways (twice), b) read the sentences in unison with the therapist (twice), c) patient must identify two or three words and read them aloud, d) reread the sentence in unison with the therapist.	Case 1 showed improvement in all modalities of language assessed by the Western Battery, reflected in spontaneous speech. However, there was a decrease in the number of words spoken per minute. Case 2 presented the opposite performance pattern, supporting the hypothesis of individual variability in language therapy.
ORLA - Oral Reading for Language in Aphasia.17, 51	Produce sentences spontaneously from unsystematic and repetitive low intensity training (with reading).	Steps: [a] patient hears sentence twice, while reading it. [b] they follow the sentence with their finger while it is read by the therapist. [c] patient reads the sentence with the therapist (unison) twice. [d] patient reads the words of the sentence randomly. [e] patient reads the stimuli again with the therapist (unison). Stimuli: sentences with varied vocabulary and different grammatical structures (natural prosody).	Patients with chronic nonfluent aphasia can improve their language skills with low intensity treatment through ORLA.
Linguistic Specific Treatment: Treatment of Underlying Forms. 22,52,53,54	Work with sentence comprehension and production and generalization for narratives.	Specific linguistic treatment that uses the active form of target sentences to train the participants: Steps: [a] understand and produce verbs that are in different positions in each sentence. [b] organize the words that form the sentence appropriately. [c] produce the sentence in a different way. [d] understand and produce verbs and complements of the verb in an anomalous position in the sentence.	52The study suggests that linguistic treatment can improve aphasic commands, for even more complex structures. 53There were statistically significant improvements in efficiency of communication in the narrative discourse after this specific language training.22The treatment was effective and was recommended in the literature. All participants showed improvement in narrative discourse and an increase in correct answers (production and comprehension of sentences).54Despite individual variation in activation differences from pre- to post-treatment scans in the aphasic participants, main-effects analyses revealed a general shift from left superior temporal activation to more posterior temporoparietal areas, bilaterally.
A) Morpho-phonological Treatment.B) Morpho-Semantic Treatment.Use of regular and irregular verbs.14	A) Morpho-phonological Treatment: to process and produce verbal inflexions (emphasis on oral production).B) Morpho-semantic Treatment: to associate the verb form with each temporal context.	A) Morpho-phonological Treatment. Steps: a) confrontation naming of actions, b) auditory discrimination of a pair of words (same/different judgment), c) lexical decision of morphologically complex words and pseudowords, d) patient receives a verb stem and must give its verbal inflections, e) after a model is presented by the therapist, the participant must transform the verb, first verbally and then in writing, f) repeat each inflectional variant of the treatment verb.B) Morpho-semantic Treatment: Steps: a) confrontation naming of actions, b) anomaly judgment of sentences with mismatches between temporal adverb and verb tense, c) identifying the target picture from a set of three, d) sentence completion, write the correct verb form for a sentence that corresponds to a picture, e) select and arrange word cards (anagrams) to form the sentence that corresponds to the displayed image.	Patients who received morpho-semantic treatment showed significant improvement in the production of trained and untrained verbal inflections. Patients who received morpho-phonological treatment increased the number and diversity of inflected verbs, but showed no improvement in the production of sentences.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication.55	Produce sentences through graphic symbols.	Steps: a) participants are trained to identify 77 graphic symbols, b) production of sentences (pointing out the pictures) of gradually increased grammatical complexity, using the symbols from Step a. The sentences are trained ten times each.	Patients presented ability to access, manipulate and combine graphic symbols to produce sentences with different variations and degrees of syntactic complexity.
Augmentative Communication System.56	Produce sentences with the aid of visual stimuli.	Training for the production of pre-constructed sentences through software (CS). Patient must verbalize the words (represented by symbols on the computer screen) and record them. Subsequently, they must put words together to form sentences, verbalize them, record them and listen for later monitoring.	Five of the six patients had greater and better production of verbalized expressions using the CS.
A) Relaxation Treatment.B) Syntax Stimulation.13	Produce grammatically correct sentences with increasing syntactic complexity.	A) Progressive Muscle Relaxation performed for about fifteen to twenty minutes. Then use of the resource of guided imagery (five to ten min.). B) Grammatical structures training. Construction of sentences with increasing syntactic complexity. Sentences presented on two levels, along with picture: Level I (Imitation) - Repetition of the sentence; Level S (Spontaneous) - Production of the sentence after the therapist's question.	Both treatments produced improvement in oral language. Syntactic Stimulation improved the proportion of grammatical expressions, correct units of information, and successful oral production. The best performances were reported when the relaxation training preceded syntactic stimulation.
Treatment for sentence production: trained syntactic structures.57	Produce grammatically correct sentences identifying their grammatical components.	Training sentences through visual stimuli (photographs). Sessions divided into four levels with progressive degrees of difficulty: training active and passive voice. The therapist shows a photograph, talking about it, about the verb it represents, the topic and agent of the sentence. Then the beginning of the sentence is spoken for the patient to formulate (e.g. this picture is about calling. The verb in the sentence is "called". In this picture, the one doing the calling is the judge. The one being called is the baker. Please make a sentence starting with "The judge ...".).	Participants who received treatment showed acquisition of all the syntactic structures trained, generalization of the trained and untrained structures and improvement in narrative. In the control group, only one patient improved on some measures.
Reduced Syntax Therapy (REST).58	Stimulate and automate the production of ellipses in Dutch-speaking, chronically agrammatic speakers.	The patient is stimulated to use ellipses regularly in free conversation through a specific protocol. This protocol contained literal instructions, criteria for starting the next therapy level, standardized cueing strategies for content word retrieval, and procedures for giving feedback.	The results indicate that all agrammatic speakers were able to learn to apply elliptical style frequently during the period of therapy. After REST, 11 of the 12 participants showed a significant increase in elliptical style across untrained communicative settings.
Program for the production of non-regular sentences for agrammatism.59	Produce grammatically correct sentences, identifying their grammatical components.	The therapist shows a picture and asks the patient to describe the action corresponding to it. If they cannot, patient is presented some cards with written words corresponding to the picture. The patient must say the sentence and identify the active subject and the passive subjects.	The results showed significant improvements for all types of sentences. The rehabilitation of cognitive deficits, such as the production of certain non-canonical sentences can be effective in the chronic stage of aphasia.
Technique based on Melodic Intonation Therapy.60	Produce sentences with the aid of melody.	Steps: a) familiar songs: pieces to be sung by the patients and excerpts to be spoken, b) unfamiliar songs: as in the previous step, patients must repeat each excerpt singing and speaking, c) unfamiliar melody (used with only one patient): two weeks before the experiment, the patient receives a recording with a melody sung by the examiner with the syllable "la" (melody with easy structure). Patients must generate sentences after each step.	Singing can help the production of sentences in some specific cases of severe expressive aphasia, even under controlled experimental conditions. However, the combination of melody and text (familiar songs) in long-term memory seems to be responsible for this effect.
Training sentence production with software C-VIC (Computerized Visual Communication).61, 62	Produce sentences (present, past and future) using the C-VIC symbols and then verbalize.	General training program in C-VIC including the retrieval of nouns and verbs, and the construction of reversible and non-reversible sentences subject-verb-object (SVO). Put in order words that appear simultaneously on the computer screen to form a sentence, and then verbalize it.	61 There was generalization in the formation of sentences with regular verbs, but not with the irregular verbs.62 Patients, even those with similar syntactic deficits, showed different results for this training. These results suggest that agrammatism does not represent a fixed syntactic deficit.