Table 1.

Effects of hormones in relation to spinal cord injury

Hormone	Direct effect	Implications
Estrogen	Microglial activation, increased VEGF expression along with increased blood flow to site of injury, reduced calpain and caspase 3 expression, attenuated cellular calcium influx, decreased TNF-α and iNOS expression	Reduction in neuronal death, anti-apoptotic effect leading the increased cell survival, decreased inflammatory response; overall increase in preservation of function following injury
Progesterone	Downregulation of inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and iNOS, NOS2, MCP-1, and IL-1β; downregulation of caspase 3 and GFAP	Neuroprotection due to attenuated inflammation and reduction of apoptosis; improved motor function and increased preservation of neuronal structural and functional integrity
Human chorionic gonadotropin	Reduced lesion volume in experimental stroke models	Potential improvement in functional and structural recovery following spinal cord injury