Table 2.
Yoga Intervention, Study Design, and Results of Studies of Chronic Pain and Yoga in the Military.
| Study | Sample Size | Yoga Content | Duration and Frequency | Study Design | Dependent Variables | General Findings: Effectiveness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Groessl et al., 2008 [37] | 33 | Anusara yoga | 10 weeks; one session per week with recommended at-home practice | Single group design Pre/post |
Pain, depression, fatigue, quality of life (mental and physical) | Decreased pain, depression, fatigue; improved quality of life—mental health |
| Groessl et al., 2012 [38] | 53 | Anusara yoga | 10 weeks; one session per week with recommended at-home practice | Two group design—men and women; both received yoga Pre/post |
Pain, depression, fatigue, quality of life (mental and physical) | Women: greater improvements than men on depression, pain, fatigue, mental health-related quality of life |
| Groessl et al., 2017 [39] | 150 | Meditation, directed attention, postures, and home practice | 12 weeks; 2 times per week; recommended home practice 15–20 min on non-session days | Randomized controlled trial; yoga and delayed yoga; assessments before and 6 weeks, 12 weeks, and 6 months after | Back-related disability, pain intensity, narcotic pain medication | Reduced back-related disability at 6-month follow-up; reduced pain intensity at 12 weeks and 6-month follow-up |
| Groll et al., 2016 [39] | 45 | Mindful yoga: breath work, meditation, mindful movements, guided resting practices, and gratitude | 12 weeks; one session per week with recommended home practice | Single group design Pre/post |
Depression, health, quality of life—physical and emotional, sleep, anxiety, anger, pain | Decreased depression, anger, pain (trend). Improved quality of life and sleep. Participants with PTSD showed greater improvements than those without PTSD. |
| King et al., 2014 [40] | 15 | 8 modified yoga poses in combination with awareness, breathing, and relaxation exercises | 8 weeks; two 75-min sessions per week with 15 min of recommended daily at-home practice at least 5 days per week | Single group design Pre/post |
PTSD, anxiety, depression, fatigue, insomnia, pain | No statistically significant findings |
| Schulz-Heik et al., 2017 [41] | 64 | Meditation, intention setting, controlled breath practices, postures, synchronization of breath and movement, relaxation/meditation. Adapted for study population (use of chair; slow pacing). | Students not required to attend a specific number of sessions | Two group design—in-person and telehealth yoga Post only data |
Back pain; headaches; upset stomach; constipation or diarrhea; sleep difficulties; energy level; irritability; angry outbursts; difficulty concentrating; depression; anxiety; exaggerated startle reflex; repeated, disturbing memories | No significant differences between in person and telehealth conditions. More than 80% of participants reported improvement in pain, energy level, depression, and anxiety. |
Note. PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder.