Table 1.
Characteristics of male, premenopausal, and postmenopausal subjects 1.
| Male | Female | p-Value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-Menopausal | Post-Menopausal | |||
| n | 3763 | 2966 | 1293 | |
| Age (years) | 45.9 ± 0.2 | 40.0 ± 0.1 | 58.2 ± 0.3 | 0.339 |
| 30–39 | 992 (26.4) | 1507 (50.8) | 5 (0.4) | |
| 40–49 | 980 (26.0) | 1266 (42.7) | 88 (6.8) | |
| 50–59 | 858 (22.8) | 193 (9.5) | 576 (44.6) | |
| 60–69 | 691 (18.4) | 458 (35.4) | ||
| 70–75 | 242 (6.4) | 166 (12.8) | ||
| Height (cm) | 170.2 ± 0.1 | 158.7 ± 0.1 | 154.4 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 |
| Weight (kg) | 70.2 ± 0.2 | 57.7 ± 0.2 | 56.8 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 |
| BMI (kg/cm2) | 24.2 ± 0.1 | 22.9 ± 0.1 | 23.8 ± 0.1 | <0.0001 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 84.6 ± 0.2 | 76.1 ± 0.2 | 81.0 ± 0.3 | <0.0001 |
| Education | <0.0001 | |||
| Elementary or lower | 515 (11.9) | 126 (5.2) | 655 (53.8) | |
| Middle school | 431 (11.6) | 203 (8.3) | 173 (17.7) | |
| High school | 1154 (36.8) | 1318 (49.6) | 223 (22.6) | |
| College or higher | 1192 (39.6) | 995 (37.0) | 61 (5.9) | |
| Current smoker | 1631 (47.0) | 150 (5.6) | 51 (4.6) | <0.0001 |
| Current drinker | 2854 (77.6) | 1457 (49.2) | 353 (30.0) | <0.0001 |
| Regular exercise | 2019 (53.0) | 1464 (50.0) | 709 (55.3) | 0.008 |
| Supplement use | 1310 (34.0) | 1348 (44.7) | 612 (48.2) | |
| Nutrient intake | ||||
| Total energy (kcal/day) | 2289 ± 13.9 | 1705 ± 12.9 | 1607.9 ± 20.8 | <0.0001 |
| Fiber (g/day) | 7.1 ± 0.1 | 7.4 ± 0.1 | 8.1 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 |
| Vitamin C (mg/day) | 95.5 ± 1.4 | 110.9 ± 1.8 | 111.9 ± 2.8 | <0.0001 |
| Calcium (mg/day) | 478.3 ± 4.7 | 499.7 ± 5.8 | 476.0 ± 8.4 | 0.028 |
| Sodium (mg/day) | 4958.5 ± 45.9 | 4839.7 ± 54.2 | 4641.3 ± 93.1 | 0.005 |
| Total carotenoids (mg/day) | 6.7150 ± 0.15 | 9.6691 ± 0.27 | 10.5751 ± 0.45 | <0.0001 |
| α-Carotene (mg/day) | 0.6163 ± 0.03 | 0.8571 ± 0.04 | 1.0455 ± 0.08 | <0.0001 |
| β-Carotene (mg/day) | 3.0809 ± 0.08 | 4.5939 ± 0.16 | 5.0969 ± 0.23 | <0.0001 |
| β-Cryptoxanthin (mg/day) | 0.2536 ± 0.02 | 0.5454 ± 0.04 | 0.6136 ± 0.06 | <0.0001 |
| Lutein + zeaxanthin (mg/day) | 1.7416 ± 0.07 | 2.1661 ± 0.08 | 2.5890 ± 0.16 | <0.0001 |
| Lycopene (mg/day) | 0.8190 ± 0.07 | 2.2920 ± 0.24 | 1.9692 ± 0.36 | <0.0001 |
| Bone mineral density | ||||
| Femur neck BMD (g/cm2) | 0.8135 ± 0.02 | 0.7593 ± 0.03 | 0.6486 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
| Total hip BMD (g/cm2) | 0.9733 ± 0.02 | 0.9025 ± 0.03 | 0.8033 ± 0.04 | <0.0001 |
| Lumbar spine BMD (g/cm2) | 0.9693 ± 0.03 | 0.9957 ± 0.03 | 0.8192 ± 0.05 | <0.0001 |
| Whole body BMD (g/cm2) | 1.1887 ± 0.04 | 1.1477 ± 0.03 | 1.0210 ± 0.04 | <0.0001 |
| Serum 25(OH)D (ng/mL) | 19.2 ± 0.2 | 16.2 ± 0.2 | 18.1 ± 0.3 | <0.0001 |
1 Data are shown as mean ± standard error, n (%). BMI, body mass index; BMD, bone mineral density; 25(OH)D, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test for continuous variable and chi-square test for categorical variables used to compare the three groups. All carotenoid and nutrient intake presented as energy-adjusted values. Total carotenoid intake: the sum of the intake of five individual carotenoids.