Table 1.
Bacterial metabolites, co-metabolites, and other microbial constituents as modulators of extra-intestinal function and diseases
| Bacterial metabolites | Function | Action Site | Diseases | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BAs | Dietary fat and lipid-soluble vitamins absorption; glucose and lipid metabolism; inflammation | Liver | ALD | (46, 130, 131) |
| Liver | NAFLD/NASH | (41–45, 47, 51) | ||
| Liver | Cirrhosis | (28, 51) | ||
| Liver | PSC | (52) | ||
| Liver | HCC | (53–55) | ||
| Energy expenditure | Muscle, adipose | Obesity, diabetes | (50) | |
| SCFAs | Satiety | CNS | Obesity, diabetes | (28) |
| Glucose and lipid metabolism | Liver | Obesity, diabetes | (63, 64) | |
| GI hormone secretion; glucose metabolism; | Adipose, muscle | Obesity, diabetes | (65, 66) | |
| Choline metabolites | Glucose and lipid metabolism | Liver | NAFLD | (28, 57, 70, 71) |
| TMAO | Heart | Cardiovascular diseases | (70) | |
| Indole-derivatives | Modulate neurotransmitter level; inflammation | Brain | Inflammatory injury | (56) |
| Inflammation | Liver | Hepatic encephalopathy | (63) | |
| AhR activation | Liver | Impaired xenobiotic metabolism | (73, 74, 76) | |
| Ethanol | Lipid metabolism; inflammation | Liver | NAFLD/NASH | (78–83) |
| LPS | Inflammation | Liver | NAFLD/NASH | (86–90, 132, 133) |