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. 2017 Oct 2;7:12522. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-12782-w

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(A) Computed temperature map of the gold sample, about 900 ps after irradiation, The target is located at 2.5 cm in order to adapt the proton flux to the requested temperature conditions. The 0 level indicates the target surface in front of the proton beam; (B) Temperature evolution in time, monitored on the target surface. The temperature has been computed in the warmer region at a penetration depth of 40 μm and at a radial position of nearly beam center. The maximum temperature shown in Fig. (A) does not correspond to the maximum temperature as found in Fig. (B) since in Fig. (A) the sample temperature is still in the onset phase. After the onset, the temperature stays above the boiling point for tens of ns, ensuring the duration of the plume. The blue dashed line is a guide for the eye showing the mean value. (C) SEM image of the gold target that has been irradiated by the laser-generated protons, image taken near the beam center that is indicated with a red circle. (D) SEM image of the same target as in (C) but at a beam distance of 4 mm (indicated with a red circle), the beam center direction is indicated with a red arrow.