Table 1.

Development of vaccines to generate tumor-reactive T cells

Strategy	General Overview	Reference
Cell-based vaccines
Tumor cells/lysate	Killed autologous tumor, cancer cell lines or cell lysates	7, 38
Genetically modified tumor cells	Tumor cell lines bioengineered to express cytokines (e.g. GM-CSF, IL- 4)	8–12, 39
Dendritic cells	DCs are isolated or prepared ex vivo and loaded with TAg and then injected to patients	40
Microorganism-based vaccines
Recombinant viruses	Attenuated viruses that encode TAg	41–43
Recombinant bacteria	Attenuated, TAg-expressing bacteria (Listeria, Salmonella)	44–45
Recombinant yeast	Recombinant yeast particles expressing TAg on their surface enhance and promote presentation of TAg by APCs while avoiding risks associated with live pathogen vaccine models	46
Subunit vaccines
Peptides, proteins	Short, or long TAg-derived; synthetic peptides including helper epitopes; carbohydrate- mimetic peptides	20, 21, 26, 30–33, 35, 47
DNA or RNA	DNA plasmids or RNA encoding TAg or identified T cell epitopes injected to transduce host cells to express TAg	48, 49
Heat shock proteins	HSP-TAg complexes isolated from patient tumor extracts to target TAg to APCs	50