Del Din et al., 2016
|
ACC |
Lower back (L5) |
50 Hz |
10-m walkway |
30 PwPD, 30 HC |
Mean, SD, variability and asymmetry of stride, stance and swing time, step length, step velocity |
ICC; Pearson correlation; t-Test |
ICC > 0.9 for mean step time, stance time, step length both for HC and PwPD. ICC > 0.9 for step velocity for HC. Significant difference in step variability between PwPD/HC |
Ferrari et al., 2016
|
ACC, GYRO |
Feet |
100 Hz |
1st study: walking over a treadmill 1.8, 2.7, 3.5 km/h (1 min). 2nd study: walking in a straight line |
1st: 11 HC. 2nd: 16 PwPD |
Strides number (#), stride length, stride time, stride velocity |
ICC; Zero velocity update algorithm, RMS |
Study 1: 4.0% RMS of the differences normalized to the mean stride length. Study 2: 2.9% RMS of the differences in % of the mean stride length. ICC > 0.9 |
Sejdić et al., 2016
|
ACC |
Lower back (L3) |
100 Hz |
Gait on treadmill: 3 min walking at preferred pace, rested, 3 min walking at a slower speed (−10% from preferred speed) |
10 PwPD, 14 HC, 11 patients with neuropathy |
Swing and stance time, single and double support (DS) time, HRs of the trunk ACC |
t-Test; ANOVA; Mixed models |
Differences in: group (p = 0.04) and speed (p = 0.02) for HRs for ACC/motion capture comparison. Magnitudes of HRs 5–10% lower in ACC than motion capture system. |
Palmerini et al., 2013
|
ACC |
Lower back |
100 Hz |
iTUG test 7 m |
20 PwPD, 20 HC |
Time of: TUG, sit-to-walk, gait, turning, walk-to-sit. RMS of: sit-to-walk, gait, turning, walk-to-sit. Normalized jerk score of the ACC of: sit-to-walk, gait, turning, walk-to-sit. Step time, SD of step time, CV of step time. Phase of step, SD of phase, CV of phase. Phase coordination index (PCI) during gait. HRs of the trunk ACC |
ANOVA; ICC; Pearson correlation; LDA, Quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA), Mahalanobis (MC) classifiers |
Misclassification rate: 22.5% for LDA, 27.5% for QDA, 37.5% for MC. Correlation of: (i) time TUG with gait and posture subscore (r = 0.6, p = 0.005), rigidity subscore (r = 0.46, p = 0.04) and PIGD subscore (r = 0.51, p = 0.02); (ii) HRs with gait and posture subscore (r = −0.47, p = 0.037); (iii) turning RMS in the VT direction with gait and posture subscore (r = −0.58, p = 0.007) and rigidity subscore (r = −0.47, p = 0.038). ICC > 0.8 for time TUG but no group differences. |
Grimpampi et al., 2013
|
ACC, GYRO |
Waist |
100 Hz |
Walking at a self-selected speed along a 12 m rectilinear pathway |
11 PwPD, 13 after stroke |
Pitch, roll and yaw angles, walking speed |
RMS and correlation coefficient |
RMS < 1° for pitch and roll; RMS = 1.3° for yaw for IMU/optoelectronic system comparison. Coeff = 0.8 for correlation |
Trojaniello et al., 2015
|
ACC, GYRO |
Lower back (L4/S2) |
128 Hz |
Walking back / forth for 1 min along a 12 m walkway with the instrumented mat placed 2 m from the starting line (self-selected, comfortable speed) |
10 PwPD, 10 HC, 10 hemiparetics, 10 Huntington disease |
Gait cycles, mean and SD of stride time, stance time, swing time, step time, gait velocity |
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Friedman test |
Stride time, step time, stance and swing duration errors for PwPD were significantly larger than HC |
Mariani et al., 2013
|
ACC, GYRO |
Feet |
200 Hz |
TUG (3 m) and gait at self-selected speed on moderate (2 × 20 m) and long (4 × 50 m) distance, including straight walking and 180° turns |
10 PwPD, 10 HC |
Stride velocity, stride length, turning angle, path length, swing width, inter-cycle variability |
ICC; mean ± SD |
acc. ± prec. of 2.8 ± 2.4 cm/s and 1.3 ± 3.0 cm for stride velocity and stride length estimation compared to optical system |
Esser et al., 2013
|
ACC, GYRO |
L4 |
100 Hz |
10-m walkway free of obstacles, self-selected walking pace |
14 PwPD, 10HC |
Cadence, stride length, walking speed, parameters extracted by phase plot analysis (i.e., spread and width of the cloud data points) |
ICC; t-Test; Phase plot variability analysis |
ICC > 0.9; Difference (p = 0.041) for walking speed between PD/HC. The width of data point is affected by a change in step length, the spread in data point is affected by a change in cadence and step length |
Schmidt et al., 2011
|
StepWatch Activity Monitor |
Wrist |
Not reported |
15 m walking |
20 PwPD and multiple sclerosis (MS) |
Stride count |
Pearson coefficient |
r = 1.0 for PwPD correlation between SAM/GaitMat II. r = 0.99 for MS correlation between SAM/GaitMat II |
Parisi et al., 2016
|
ACC, GYRO |
Chest, thighs |
102.4 Hz |
Gait |
34 PwPD |
Stride time, stance time, DS time, step and stride length, limp, step velocity, thigh rom, cadence, step regularity, symmetry, spectrum power |
PCA; NCC, kNN, SVM |
Prec., sens. and spec.: 66.48, 31.83, and 88.03% |
Salarian et al., 2010
|
ACC, GYRO |
Sternum, forearms, thighs, shanks |
200 Hz |
TUG (3 m) and iTUG (7 m) including: gait, turning, Sit to Stand (Si2St), Turn-to-sit |
12 PwPD (early), 12 HC |
Gait: cadence, stance, DS, limp, ROM of shank, thigh and knee, stride length and velocity, peak swing velocity, arm swing pitch and yaw, peak arm swing velocity, arm swing speed asymmetry, peak trunk horizontal and sagittal velocity, ROM of trunk. Turning: peak angular velocity, duration, steps, average and max step time, # double steps. Si2St: peak and average angular velocity, duration, ROM of trunk. Turn-to-sit: duration, ROM of trunk, steps, average and max step time, # double steps |
ICC; Wilcoxon rank-sum test |
ICC > 0.9 for temporal measures except for limps; ICC = 0.75 for gait measures; ICC = 0.23 for Si2St measures; ICC = 0.67 for turning measures; ICC = 0.50 for turn-to-sit measures. Differences in cadence (p < 0.006), angular velocity of arm-swing (p < 0.005), turning duration (p < 0.023), and time to perform turn-to-sits (p < 0.023) between early PwPD/HC |
Weiss et al., 2010
|
ACC, ECG, GSR, force sensors |
Lower back (L3/L5) |
256 Hz |
TUG |
17 PwPD, 15 HC |
Mean and SD of: time of TUG, time of Si2St, time of stand-to-sit (St2Si), Range Si2St, Range St2Si, Jerk Si2St, Jerk St2Si. Median and SD of ACC |
t-Test; Pearson correlation |
TUG duration (p < 0.02), median ACC (p = 0.02), SD ACC (p < 0.004) higher in PwPD than HC. Range and jerk of ACC lower in PwPD than HC (p < 0.006). Jerk Si2St correlated with UPDRS (r = 0.56; p = 0.02) and HY scores (r = 0.49, p = 0.04) |
Giuberti et al., 2015
|
ACC, GYRO |
Chest |
102.4 Hz |
Si2St |
24 PwPD |
Forwards/backwards/total duration, forwards/backwards/average bending amplitude and bending speed |
PCA; NCC, kNN, SVM |
Miscalssification rates: 3.7% for UPDRS = 0; 100% for UPDRS = 0.5; 50% for UPDRS = 1; 71.4% for UPDRS = 2; 100% for UPDRS = 2.5; 100% for UPDRS = 3. No data for UPDRS = 2, 3.5, 4 |
Curtze et al., 2016
|
ACC, GYRO |
Wrists, ankles, lumbar segment, sternum |
Not reported |
ISAW: to stand still for 30 s, initiate gait with the most affected leg, walk 7 m at comfortable pace, turn 180°, and walk back to the starting location (3 times) |
104 PwPD |
34 measures of gait and balance into 6 domains: postural sway, initiation of gait, gait arm and trunk movement, gait dynamic stability, turning |
Spearman correlation; false discovery rate correction |
30 significant associations between gait and balance measures and clinical scales. Turning and gait–pace are most indicative of patient status |
Horak et al., 2016
|
|
|
|
|
100 PwPD, 21 HC |
90 measures of gait and balance into 6 domains: sway area, sway freq, gait speed, gait trunk, gait timing, arm asymmetry |
ICC; Pearson correlation; t-test |
ICC > 0.75 for 30 features. Gait and postural sway measures not highly correlated. r = −0.62 between gait trunk domain and PIGD subscale. Largest differences PD-ON/HC in gait speed and gait trunk |
Weiss et al., 2011
|
ACC (Mobi8, TMSI) |
Lower back |
256 Hz |
Validation study: 1 min, straight-line walk at a self-selected, comfortable pace inside a long hallway. Gait test: straight-line walk (~25 m × 2). ADL simulation: 500 m walk at comfortable, self-selected speed |
22 PwPD, 17 HC |
Stride time, stride time variability (validation study only). Dominant freq, amplitude, width (FD), and slope of the main freq of the PSD in the 0.5–to 3.0-Hz band |
t-tests 2-tailed; paired t-tests; Pearson coefficients |
Width larger, and amplitude and slope smaller in PwPD compared to HC [validation study and ADL simulation (p < 0.02)]. Width decreased, and amplitude and slope increased with anti-Parkinsonian medications (p < 0.007). Significant correlations ACC-derived measures/UPDRS-Gait5 |
Rahimi et al., 2014
|
FAB system BioSyn® (ACC, GYRO) |
Head, arm, forearm, trunk, pelvis, thigh, shank |
100 Hz |
Walking, walking turns of 180° and fast walking (3 trials) |
11 PwPD |
Mean and peak amplitude values of each of 59 joint variable |
Change space; Least Absolute Shrinkage Selection Operator (LASSO) |
Correctly predicted 5 cases of improvement and 2 cases of worsening after medication |
Salarian et al., 2013
|
GYRO |
Shanks |
200 Hz |
Walking down a 20 m straight hallway both with comfortable speed and fast speed |
10 PwPD, 10 HC |
Joint angle kinematics including flexion/extension angles at the hip, knee, ankle joints, cadence, % of swing, stance, DS phases |
Linear mixed model |
Double pendulum model with 2 GYRO on shanks reduces the number of sensing units compared to more complex methods, with relatively small impact on accuracy |
Yoneyama et al., 2016
|
Portable rhythmo-gram (ACC) |
Waist |
100 Hz |
ADL in the community for 24 h with the device attached at all times (including sleeping hours) except when changing clothes or taking a bath |
13 mild and 13 severe PwPD, 13 HC, 13 mild and 13 severe MCI/dementia |
Features based on: gait ACC, gait variability, gait cycle, number of gait data |
Kruskal-Wallis (KW) test with post hoc Steel-Dwass test |
The proposed gait measures may deserve to be used for the quantification of disease-specific context-dependent aspects. Gait variability is the lowest in mild PwPD |
Parisi et al., 2015
|
ACC, GYRO |
Chest, thighs |
102.4 Hz |
Comparative investigation of: Leg agility (LA), Si2St, Gait |
34 PwPD |
LA: angular amplitude and speed, pause, regularity, repetition freq, thigh inclination, angular velocity power spectrum. Si2St: forwards/backwards/total duration, forwards/backwards/average bending amplitude and bending speed. Gait: stride, stance time and DS time, step and stride length, limp, step velocity, thigh ROM, cadence, step regularity, symmetry, spectrum power |
PCA; NCC, kNN and SVM |
Prec., sens. and spec.: 34.55, 25.17, 84.52% in LA task; 28.00, 25.63, and 77.51 in Si2St task; 66.48, 31.83, and 88.03% in Gait task |
Rochester et al., 2010
|
ACC, biofeedback |
Legs, sternum |
25 Hz |
Single task, dual task, retention of single and dual task over 3 weeks |
76 early and 77 late PwPD |
Walking speed, step length, step freq |
Multiple linear regression models; 2-tailed analysis |
Significant training effect for: Single task in speed with cues, step length with/without cues, cadence without cue; Dual task in speed and step length with/without cues. No significant retention effect |
Lord et al., 2010
|
ACC (Vitaport Activity Monitor) |
Not specified |
Not reported |
(i) Single task: standing up from a chair and walking to the kitchen; (ii) dual motor task: specific ADL; (iii) cognitive task; (iv) multi-task. |
29 PwPD |
Gait speed, interference effect |
Moment correlation coefficients, linear regression |
For gait speed: within-subject effect during the functional walk (p < 0.001), with gait speed slower during dual and multi-task performance. Higher UPDRS-III scores resulted in a significantly slower walking speed for all conditions. Participants with impaired sustained attention walked more slowly in single and dual motor conditions. |
Demonceau et al., 2015
|
ACC |
Lower back (L3/L4) |
100 Hz |
Walking at the self-selected pace along a 36-m-long track in a wide, clear, and straight hallway |
32 PwPD (HY < 2), 32 PwPD (HY = 2/3), 32 HC |
Stride length, cadence, regularity index, symmetry index, walking speed and mechanical powers yielded in the cranial-caudal, AP and ML directions |
ANOVA, KW, Tukey, Mann- Witney, Wilcoxon, Correlation coefficients; Multivariate regression, ORs |
Difference between PwPD groups in regularity index (p = 0.009, OR = 0.98). Significant difference between PwPD groups and HC in symmetry index, speed, stride length, mechanical powers in ML and AP directions. Significant (p < 0.05) but low (r < 0.5) correlation with clinical data. Regularity index and power in ML direction discriminated the 3 groups. |
Yoneyama et al., 2013
|
ACC |
Waist |
100 Hz |
Test 1: walking 200 steps (9 dictated paces). Test 2: stepping on the same spot and intentional side-to-side body sway; normal walking with the device to the left side of the body; walking asymmetrically; jumping forward with both legs (each 10 s). Test 3: collecting ACC data in hospital (10 min) and outside (24 h) |
Test 1: 11 HC; Test 2: 1 HC; Test 3: 12 PwPD |
Gait cycle, average VT ACC per cycle |
Threshold levels criterion |
Test 1: 97.2% sens., 97.4% spec., 97.3% acc. Test 2: 100% sens., 100% spec., 100% acc. Test 3: 94.0% sens., 95.7% spec., 95.4% acc. |