Table 3.

Approaches for human vaccines against CCHFV.

Vaccine type	CCHFV antigen	Immunity		Protection in preclinical model	Clinical evidence		Refs.
		Antibody	T cell		Safety1	Manufacturing practicalities
Inactivated virus (mouse brain)	Whole virus	✓	✓	?	?	X	[60], [64]
Inactivated virus (cell culture)	Whole virus	✓	NT	✓2	?	X	[97]
Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA)	M segment	✓	✓	✓3	✓	✓	[98]
	S segment	✓	✓	X	✓	✓	[99]
DNA vaccine	M segment	✓	NT	NT	✓	✓	[100]
	Gc, Gn and NP	✓	✓	✓4	✓	✓	[91]
Transgenic plant	Glycoprotein	✓	NT	NT	?	✓	[79]
Protein	Gn glycoprotein	✓	NT	X	?	✓	[92]
	Gc glycoprotein	✓	NT	X	?	✓
Adenovirus	M segment	✓	✓	X	✓	✓	[101]
Virus-like particles	Gc, Gn and NP	✓	✓	✓5	✓	✓	[91]

Key: NT, not tested; ✓, positive results; X, negative results; ?, unknown.

¹Based on the same technology used for other pathogens.

²80% efficacy reported.

³100% efficacy reported.

⁴100% efficacy reported.

⁵40% efficacy reported.