Table 1. Prevalence of Diabetic Retinopathya by Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics, and Means/Medians for Other Clinical Characteristics by Diabetic Retinopathya Status of Study Population in 3 Low-Income Municipalities, Mexico, 2014–2016.
| Characteristics | Total (N = 1,000) | Has Diabetic Retinopathy, % (n = 317) | Does Not Have Diabetic Retinopathy, % (n = 683) | P Valueb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | 1,000 | 31.7 | 68.3 | |
| Sexc | ||||
| Female | 730 | 30.6 | 69.4 | .20 |
| Male | 270 | 34.8 | 65.2 | |
| Socioeconomic statusc , d | ||||
| Low | 332 | 35.5 | 64.5 | .04 |
| Middle | 332 | 32.8 | 67.2 | |
| High | 331 | 26.6 | 73.4 | |
| Marital statusc | ||||
| Single | 100 | 20.0 | 80.0 | .01 |
| Married | 675 | 31.6 | 68.4 | |
| Divorced | 77 | 41.6 | 58.4 | |
| Widowed | 133 | 35.3 | 64.7 | |
| Can speak an indigenous languagec | ||||
| Yes | 47 | 34.0 | 66.0 | .71 |
| No | 949 | 31.5 | 68.5 | |
| Educationc | ||||
| None | 162 | 34.6 | 65.4 | .06 |
| Some elementary school | 454 | 33.5 | 66.5 | |
| Some junior high school | 237 | 32.9 | 67.1 | |
| Some high school | 82 | 23.2 | 76.8 | |
| Some bachelor’s degree or more | 63 | 19.1 | 80.9 | |
| Health system affiliationc | ||||
| None | 83 | 30.1 | 69.9 | .26 |
| IMSS | 150 | 27.3 | 72.7 | |
| ISSSTE | 72 | 23.6 | 76.4 | |
| Seguro Popular | 681 | 33.5 | 66.5 | |
| Private | 13 | 46.2 | 53.8 | |
| Other | 1 | 0.0 | 100.0 | |
| Body mass index,c kg/m2 | ||||
| <25.0 | 247 | 44.9 | 55.1 | <.001 |
| 25.0–29.9 | 416 | 30.8 | 69.2 | |
| ≥30.0 | 321 | 23.1 | 76.9 | |
| Abdominal obesity (waist circumference ≥80 cm for women and ≥90 cm for men)c | ||||
| Yes | 869 | 30.4 | 69.6 | .008 |
| No | 115 | 42.6 | 57.4 | |
| Triglycerides ≥150 mg/dLe | ||||
| Yes | 294 | 34.0 | 66.0 | .32 |
| No | 124 | 29.0 | 70.1 | |
| Cholesterol ≥200 mg/dLe | ||||
| Yes | 168 | 37.5 | 62.5 | .08 |
| No | 250 | 29.2 | 70.8 | |
| High-density lipoprotein cholesterol <50 mg/dL for women and <40 mg/dL for mene | ||||
| Yes | 329 | 31.3 | 68.7 | .30 |
| No | 89 | 37.1 | 62.9 | |
| Insulin resistance HOMA index ≥3.8f | ||||
| Yes | 48 | 39.6 | 60.4 | .004 |
| No | 64 | 15.6 | 84.4 | |
| High blood glucosec (fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL or random glucose ≥200 mg/dL) | ||||
| Yes | 603 | 38.1 | 61.9 | <.001 |
| No | 345 | 20.0 | 80.0 | |
| General hypertensionc (previous diagnosis or measurement of blood pressure ≥140/≥90 mm Hg) | ||||
| Yes | 524 | 35.5 | 64.5 | .006 |
| No | 469 | 27.3 | 72.7 | |
| Physical activity used to control diabetesg , h | ||||
| Yes | 272 | 26.8 | 73.2 | .01 |
| No | 554 | 35.6 | 64.4 | |
| Diet used to control diabetesg , h | ||||
| Yes | 345 | 30.4 | 69.6 | .23 |
| No | 483 | 34.4 | 65.6 | |
| Age, mean (SD), yc | 57.2 (11.0) | 57.9 (9.3) | 56.9 (11.7) | .16 |
| Time since diabetes diagnosis, median (IQR), yc | 7.0 (3.0–14.0) | 13.0 (8.0–18.0) | 5.0 (2.0–10.0) | <.001 |
| Fasting capillary glucose, median (IQR), mg/dLi | 149.0 (118.0–221.0) | 194.5 (140.0–243.0) | 137.0 (113.0–195.0) | <.001 |
| Random capillary glucose, median (IQR), mg/dLj | 214.5 (155.0- 295.0) | 240.0 (182.0–325.0) | 196.0 (148.0–273.0) | <.001 |
| Fasting venous glucose, median (IQR), mg/dLk | 153.0 (117.0–219.0) | 198.0 (146.0–252.0) | 135.5 (110.0–197.0) | <.001 |
| Insulin, median (IQR), µIU/mLf | 9.75 (6.7–13.8) | 10.4 (7.3–15.6) | 9.5 (6.6–13.7) | .48 |
| Systolic blood pressure, median (IQR), mm Hgc | 127.5 (115.5–142.0) | 131.5 (118.5–147.5) | 126.5 (114.0–140.0) | <.001 |
| Diastolic blood pressure, median (IQR), mm Hgc | 72.0 (64.0–79.5) | 72.5 (65.0–80.5) | 71.5 (63.5–79.5) | .19 |
Abbreviations: HOMA, homeostasis model assessment; IMSS, the Mexican Social Security Institute (Spanish: Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social); IQR, interquartile range; ISSSTE, the Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (Spanish: Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado).
Diabetic retinopathy classification according to Revised English Diabetic Eye Screening Program Grading System (grade 1, grade 2, or grade 3) (25).
χ2 test (contingency tables for more than 2 categories or proportion comparison), Student t test, or Mann–Whitney U test.
The percentage of participants with missing data was <5.0% or with complete information.
Socioeconomic index developed by using first principal component methodology.
Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was 32.5% among those measured for triglycerides, total cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (n = 418).
Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was 25.9% among those measured for insulin (n = 112).
The percentage of participants with missing data ≥5.0%.
Determined by answer to question “Do you have any other treatment for sugar control?” Exercise (no/yes) and diet (yes/no) were provided as possible responses.
Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was 30.7% among those measured for fasting capillary glucose (n = 423).
Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was 31.6% among those measured for random capillary glucose (n = 402).
Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy was 32.5% among those measured for fasting venous glucose (n = 418).