Table 3.

Causes of bleeding in patients with cirrhosis – vascular causes [7]

Portal hypertension, i.e. increase in portal vein pressure > 12 mmHg (standard 5-6 mmHg) with a simultaneous increase in gradient (WHVP) between the portal vein pressure and the pressure in inferior vena cava > 2-6 mmHg – called portal hypertension (PH):

– Presence of collateral vessels: esophageal, gastric, rectal, abdominal wall varices, less frequent in other areas

– Gastropathy, enteropathy and portal collopathy

– Gastric antral vascular ectasia (GAVE)

– Hypersplenism

Cytokine dysfunction related to vascular wall tension

Vascular stasis in lower limbs:

– Lower limbs varices

– Vascular stasis of hydrostatic origin (hypoproteinemia, venous and lymphatic compression of the pelvis in ascites, impaired drainage of the lower limbs)