Table 1.

Abnormal light:dark conditions and metabolic alterations in animal models.

Manipulation	Species	Alterations	Reference
Constant light	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Altered feeding patterns –Reduced glucose tolerance	Fonken et al. (115)
		–Increased body weight –Greater food intake –Decreased energy expenditure –Loss pattern of insulin sensitivity	Coomans et al. (142)
		–Reduced amplitude of liver and kidneys clock-genes rhythms	Hamaguchi et al. (143)
		–Increased fat accumulation in response to high fat diet	Shi et al. (144)
	Rat	–Reduced food and water intake –Increased adiposity	Wideman and Murphy (137)
		–Increased circulating cholesterol levels	Vinogradova et al. (147)
		–Disrupted patterns of plasma melatonin, glucose, lactic acid, and corticosterone	Dauchy et al. (146)
	Hamster	–Altered rhythms of glucocorticoid release	Lilley et al. (148)
Light at night	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Reduced energy expenditure	Borniger et al. (149)
		–Increased body weight	Aubrecht et al. (150)
		–Increased body weight –Altered clock-gene expression in liver and adipose tissue	Fonken et al. (116)
	Rat	–Reduced glucose tolerance	Opperhuizen et al. (151)
Chronic phase shifting	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Increased body fat –Higher levels of triglycerides –Altered adipocytes morphology	Casiraghi et al. (118)
		–Increased body weight –Increased white adipose tissues –Altered liver metabolic genes expression	Oike et al. (152)
		–Altered liver clock-genes expression –Suppression of glucocorticoid and melatonin receptors expression in the liver	Iwamoto et al. (153)
		–Increased progression of colitis	Preuss et al. (154)
		–Increased insulin resistance –Increased fat accumulation	Zhu et al. (155)
	Rat	–Increased body fat –Decreased serum insulin, leptin, and glucose levels –Altered profiles of liver metabolism gene expression	Herrero et al. (156)
		–Increased body weight –Higher fasting glucose levels	McDonald et al. (157)
		–Increased body weight –Reduced activity –Increased food consumption	Tsai et al. (158)
		–Lower plasma insulin levels –Increased fat in response to a high-fat diet	Bartol-Munier et al. (159)
T-cycles	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Increased leptin and insulin levels	Karatsoreos et al. (160)
		–Reduced corticosterone levels	Sollars et al. (161)
Ultradian light cycle	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Reduced activity	Oishi and Higo-Yamamoto (162)
Sleep disruption	Mouse	–Disrupted lipid metabolism gene expression –Increased liver and serum fatty acids	Ferrell and Chiang (163)
		–Altered feeding behavior –Global disruption of liver metabolic transcriptome –Impaired gluconeogenic capacity and glycogen storage rhythms	Barclay et al. (164)
	Rat	–Reduced glucose tolerance	Jha et al. (165)
		–Increased body weight –Altered feeding patterns –Liver clock-genes desynchronization –Disrupted rhythms of plasma glucose and triacylglycerols	Salgado-Delgado et al. (166, 167)
		–Increased body weight	Marti et al. (168)
Mistimed feeding schedules	Mouse	–Increased body weight –Hyperphagia –Induced leptin resistance –Higher levels of plasma insulin –Increased accumulation of cholesterol, triglycerides, and fatty acids in the liver	Yasumoto et al. (169)
		–Increased body weight –Increased calorie intake –Increased respiratory exchange ratio –Altered liver and other peripheral organs clock- and metabolic genes expression –Disrupted daily hormones variations	Bray et al. (170)
	Rat	–Increased body weight –Desynchronization of liver rhythms	Opperhuizen et al. (171)