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. 2017 Oct 25;6:28. doi: 10.1186/s40035-017-0099-z

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© The Author(s). 2017

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

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Fig. 7 — Mechanistic details of MPTP-induced DA-neuronal loss in PD. After crossing blood brain barrier, MPTP enters glial cells, where it is converted to MPP+. This MPP+ then enters neurons and damage mitochondria, which causes energy failure, oxidative stress, glutamate and Ca⁺⁺ excitotoxicty, increased aggregation of misfolded SNCA, and DA-neuronal loss