Table 1. Characteristics of risk factors for being at risk or stunted length-for-age by site.
| Characteristic | Asia | Americas | Africa | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BGD | INV | NEB | BRF | PEL | SAV | TZH | |
| Sample size at enrollment, n | 265 | 251 | 240 | 233 | 303 | 314 | 262 |
| Sample size of children with complete data, n (percent) | 206 (78) | 200 (80) | 208 (87) | 81 (35) | 198 (65) | 199 (63) | 199 (76) |
| Neonatal and maternal factors | |||||||
| Enrollment weight-for-age Z-score, mean (SD) | −1.3 (0.9) | −1.3 (1.0) | −0.9 (1.0) | −0.2 (1.1) | −0.6 (0.9) | −0.4 (1.0) | −0.1 (0.9) |
| Maternal height in cm, mean (SD) | 148.9 (5.1) | 151.2 (5.0) | 149.6 (5.3) | 154.9 (6.8) | 149.8 (5.6) | 158.7 (6.8) | 155.8 (6.0) |
| Household factors | |||||||
| WAMI index, mean (SD) | 0.5 (0.1) | 0.5 (0.1) | 0.7 (0.1) | 0.8 (0.1) | 0.5 (0.1) | 0.8 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) |
| Food insecurity score, mean (SD) | 1.3 (2.3) | 2.0 (3.6) | 0.8 (1.6) | 10.7 (3.5) | 7.1 (3.9) | 3.9 (3.6) | 1.7 (1.8) |
| Maternal-reported illnesses/antibiotic use at 24 months | |||||||
| Diarrhea: longitudinal prevalence (percent days) | 3.5 | 1.8 | 3.1 | 0.6 | 4.7 | 0.4 | 0.8 |
| ALRI: longitudinal prevalence (percent days) | 0.3 | 2.2 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 |
| Fever: longitudinal prevalence (percent days) | 6.3 | 5.5 | 4.7 | 0.5 | 4.0 | 0.5 | 2.0 |
| Antibiotic use: longitudinal (percent days) | 14.9 | 4.7 | 3.7 | 1.4 | 6.7 | 2.0 | 6.6 |
| Diarrhea: number of diagnoses, mean (SD) | 0.3 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.6) | 0.5 (3.0) | 0 − | 0.2 (1.2) | 0.1 (1.0) | 0.7 (2.4) |
| Pneumonia: number of diagnoses, mean (SD) | 1.5 (5.0) | 0.8 (2.7) | 1.4 (3.7) | 0.3 (1.6) | 0.6 (2.7) | 0.2 (1.3) | 0.6 (2.0) |
| Cumulative average number of non-diarrheal enteropathogens at 24 months | 1.1 (0.3) | 1.1 (0.4) | 0.8 (0.3) | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.0 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.2) | 1.3 (0.4) |
| Micronutrient status and inflammation | |||||||
| Hemoglobin, g/l, mean (SD) | 114 (12) | 108 (10) | 105 (09) | 112 (14) | 110 (09) | 110 (11) | 111 (11) |
| Percent with anemia (hemoglobin < 100 g/l) at 24 months | 27% | 42% | 38% | 26% | 26% | 42% | 34% |
| Retinol concentration, mcg/dl, mean (SD) | 23.7 (5.3) | 29.4 (7.2) | 25.7 (5.2) | 31.1 (7.7) | 23.1 (4.9) | 20.2 (6.2) | 16.8 (5.0) |
| Percent with vitamin A deficiency (retinol < 20 mcg/dl) at 24 months | 25% | 13% | 26% | 12% | 30% | 57% | 68% |
| Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein concentration, mg/dl, mean (SD) | 87.0 (22.6) | 98.6 (24.0) | 122.3 (30.2) | 96.0 (24.8) | 116.7 (29.2) | 130.4 (37.9) | 118.8 (39.3) |
| Plasma ferritin concentration, mcg/l, mean (SD) | 22.4 (19.7) | 22.6 (21.2) | 23.3 (60.4) | 28.2 (11.7) | 32.0 (26.4) | 31.2 (31.2) | 19.7 (18.3) |
| Breastfeeding over 24 months | |||||||
| Days with exclusive breastfeeding (mean) | 103.5 | 75.8 | 58.8 | 63.7 | 39.4 | 28.7 | 44.8 |
| Days with partial breastfeeding (mean) | 528.0 | 402.1 | 585.2 | 396.2 | 409.4 | 477.4 | 504.3 |
| Non-breast-milk intake over 24 months | |||||||
| Non-breast-milk cumulative energy intake, per 1,000 kCal, mean (SD) | 349.3 (135.3) | 753.1 (224.0) | 435.3 (155.7) | 1,005.3 (203.3) | 738.0 (178.0) | 880.6 (196.8) | 993.8 (191.6) |
| Non-breast-milk percent energy from protein, mean (SD) | 11.4 (1.4) | 11.3 (1.4) | 11.2 (2.0) | 16.8 (1.7) | 10.8 (1.5) | 12.2 (1.4) | 11.8 (1.3) |
| Gut inflammation and permeability biomarkers | |||||||
| Stool MPO, ng/ml (square root) in first 12 months, mean (SD) | 85.7 (63.3) | 119.2 (64.7) | 88.1 (48.7) | 65.6 (44.4) | 106.7 (55.1) | 81.7 (43.6) | 97.8 (54.5) |
| Stool NEO, nmol/l (square root) in first 12 months, mean (SD) | 41.8 (22.0) | 50.6 (21.1) | 46.6 (15.9) | 43.1 (21.1) | 55.9 (19.8) | 69.9 (30.7) | 38.2 (26.7) |
| Stool AAT, mg/g (square root), in first 12 months, mean (SD) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.6 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.6 (0.3) | 0.6 (0.3) |
| Lactulose:mannitol Z-score at 15 months, mean (SD) | −0.0 (0.7) | 0.9 (0.8) | −0.1 (1.1) | −0.0 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.7) | 0.6 (1.4) | 0.3 (1.2) |
AAT, alpha-1 antitrypsin; ALRI, acute lower respiratory infection; BGD, Dhaka, Bangladesh; BRF, Fortaleza, Brazil; INV, Vellore, India; MPO, myeloperoxidase; NEB, Bhaktapur, Nepal; NEO, neopterin; PEL, Loreto, Peru; SAV, Venda, South Africa; TZH, Haydom, Tanzania.