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. 2017 Oct 26;7:14099. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-14429-2

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(a,b) The water contact angle and underwater oil droplet contact angle of the rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane manipulated by hydrophilic nano-TiO₂, respectively. (c) Real-time recorded force-distance curves for rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane during the dynamic adhesion measurements. (d) The permeation flux and separation efficiency of the as-prepared rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane. (e,f) SEM images of the rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane after 2 h continuous crossflow separation. (g) The water contact angle and underwater oil droplet contact angle of the rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane after 2 h continuous crossflow separation, respectively. (h) Real-time recorded force-distance curves for the washed rigid superhydrophilic PVDF membrane surface during the dynamic adhesion measurement.