Table 2.
Side effects of pharmaceutical agents that have anti‐inflammatory properties and can contribute to improving the HDL‐C function
| Pharmaceutical agents | Side effects | References |
|---|---|---|
| Aspirin | Drug resistance can occur in some patients. | Azmin et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2017 |
| Polyp formation and exacerbation of respiratory disease has been observed. | Eskandarian et al., 2012; Cook and Stevenson, 2016 | |
| Chronic salicylate intoxication can cause SIRS. | Chalasani et al., 1996 | |
| Aspirin can cause gastritis and increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. | Gartner, 1976 | |
| Salsalates | Poor tolerance in HIV patients. | Hileman et al., 2010 |
| Activate AMPK and may cause Alzheimer's disease. | Domise et al., 2016 | |
| Metformin | Effect may depend on race and ethnicity. | Zhang et al., 2015 |
| It may cause lactic acidosis especially if given in renal diseases. | Lalau, 2010 | |
| It causes hepatotoxicity in PON‐1‐ deficient mice. | García‐Heredia et al., 2016 | |
| Activates AMPK and may cause Alzheimer's disease. | Domise et al., 2016 | |
| Statins | Down‐regulate ABCA1 and ABCG1 activity in macrophages. | Sone et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2013; Wong et al., 2008 |
| Cause myopathy in some patients. | Lahaye et al., 2014; Brinton et al., 2016; Jacobson, 2009; Rosenson, 2004 | |
| Rosuvastatin did not reduce inflammation in sepsis associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. | Truwit et al., 2014 | |
| Unsafe in pregnancy. | Hosokawa et al., 2003 | |
| They may cause hepatotoxicity. | Russo et al., 2014 | |
| Niacin | There is increased risk of flushing with niacin use. | Maccubbin et al., 2009 |
| May cause macular oedema. | Domanico et al., 2015 | |
| May lead to the development of hepatitis. | Etchason et al., 1991 | |
| PPAR‐α agonists | Did not decrease inflammation in rodents with renal crystal formation. | Taguchi et al., 2016 |
| Fenofibrate did not decrease inflammatory markers in one study. | Hogue et al., 2008 | |
| Fibrates may cause increased risk of renal problems. | Zhao et al., 2012 | |
| PPAR‐γ agonists | Thiazolidinediones may increase risk of myocardial infarction and heart failure especially rosiglitazone. |
Singh et al., 2007
Nissen and Wolski, 2007 |
| Increased risks of fractures in women. | Loke et al., 2009 | |
| There is increased risk of bladder cancer with pioglitazone. | Ferwana et al., 2013 | |
| Biological agents (IL‐6 inhibitor, JAK inhibitor and TNF‐α inhibitor) | Several toxic side effects. | Pichler, 2006 |
| Increase chance of fungal infections with anti‐TNF‐α fusion inhibitors. | Tragiannidis et al., 2016 | |
| LXR agonists | May cause increase in TGs, VLDL and LDL by inducing SREBP‐1c | Repa et al., 2000a; Schultz et al., 2000; Grefhorst et al., 2002 |
| Sildenafil | May cause hypotension if given with nitrates. | Webb et al., 1999 |
| Monoclonal antibodies | Adverse effects including acute anaphylaxis, serum sickness, cardiotoxicity etc. | Hansel et al., 2010; Kizhedath et al., 2016 |
| Increase chance of fungal infections with anti‐TNFα monoclonal antibodies. | Tragiannidis et al., 2016 | |
| 5‐Lipoxygenase inhibitors | ||
| Theophylline | Can cause adverse effects due to theophylline toxicity. | Eason and Markowe, 1989 |
| Montelukast | Increased risk of ecchymosis. | Aypak et al., 2013 |
| Methotrexate | May cause elevation of liver enzymes and hepatotoxicity. | Curtis et al., 2010 |
| May cause bone marrow suppression. | Sosin and Handa, 2003 |