Table 2.
Effect Sizes of Studies Using Neutral or Non-Associative Material and Studies Using Emotional Associative Material
| Studies | Category | Material | Cohen’s d |
|---|---|---|---|
| Neutral or nonassociative material | |||
| Bremner et al. (2000) | PTSD | Neutral DRM | 0.51 (recognition) |
| Bremner et al. (2000) | PTSD | Neutral DRM | 0.04 (recall) |
| Hauschildt et al. (2012) | PTSD | Visual neutral DRM | No dataa |
| Triantafyllou et al. (2015) | PTSD | Neutral DRM | 0.22 |
| Jelinek et al. (2009) | PTSD | Visual neutral DRM | No data |
| Zoellner et al. (2000) | PTSD | Neutral DRM | No data |
| McWilliams et al. (2014) | PTSD | Video | –0.45 (incorrect recall, Exp. 1) |
| McWilliams et al. (2014) | PTSD | Video | 0.63 (commission, Exp. 1) |
| McWilliams et al. (2014) | PTSD | Video | 0.5 (incorrect recall, Exp. 2) |
| McWilliams et al. (2014) | PTSD | Video | 0.33 (commission, Exp. 2) |
| Chae et al. (2011) | PTSD | Interactive event | –0.06b |
| Chae et al. (2011) | PTSD | Interactive event | –0.12 |
| Chae et al. (2011) | PTSD | Interactive event | 0.16 |
| Chae et al. (2011) | PTSD | Interactive event | 0.21 |
| Howe et al. (2004) | Trauma | Neutral DRM | No data |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | 0.14 (abused group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | –0.56 (abused group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | –1.13 (abused group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | 0.63 (abused group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | –0.64 (neglected group |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | 0.39 (neglected group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | –1.09 (neglected group) |
| Valentino et al. (2008) | Trauma | Words | 0.25 (neglected group) |
| Eisen et al. (2002) | Trauma | Interactive event | –0.19 (misleading incorrect) |
| Eisen et al. (2002) | Trauma | Interactive event | 0.22 (misleading correct) |
| Eisen et al. (2002) | Trauma | Interactive event | –0.06 (abuse misleading incorrect) |
| Eisen et al. (2002) | Trauma | Interactive event | 0.09 (abuse misleading correct) |
| Eisen et al. (2007) | Trauma | Interactive event | –0.27 (overall error misleading) |
| Eisen et al. (2007) | Trauma | Interactive event | –0.26 (commission abuse-related) |
| Different types of emotional associative material | |||
| Moradi et al. (2015) | PTSD | Trauma-related video | 1.92 |
| Brennen et al. (2007) | PTSD | Trauma-related DRM | 0.65 |
| Hayes et al. (2011) | PTSD | Trauma pictures | No data |
| Howe, Toth, et al. (2011) | Trauma | Negative DRM | No data |
| Baugerud et al. (2016) | Trauma | Negative DRM | 0.59 |
| Goodman et al. (2011) | Trauma | Trauma-related DRM | 0.77 |
| Goodman et al. (2011) | Trauma | Trauma-related DRM | 0.57 |
| Otgaar et al. (in press) | Trauma | Negative DRM | 0.61 |
| Moritz et al. (2005) | Depression | Depression-relevant DRM | 0.56 |
| Moritz et al. (2005) | Depression | Depression-relevant DRM | 0.88 |
| Moritz et al. (2008) | Depression | Negative DRM | No data |
| Yeh and Hua (2009) | Depression | Negative DRM | No data |
| Joormann et al. (2009) | Depression | Negative DRM | 0.63 |
| Toffalini et al. (2014) | Depression | Negative script | 1.65 |
| Howe and Malone (2011) | Depression | Depression-relevant DRM | 1.10 |
Note: DRM = Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm; PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder.
a
For some studies, we could not calculate the Cohen’s d and the original authors could not provide them. In these instances, we refer to “no data.”
b
See Table 4 of the original article. The effect sizes refer to the overall error of misleading questions for the comparison between different types of trauma (e.g., sexual abuse, neglect) and a control group.