Table 2.
ORs for GHQ-12 score ≥ 4(N=9589)
| Variables | Total | Men | Women | ||||||
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
| Experienced abuse in last month | |||||||||
| No (ref) | |||||||||
| Yes | 2.44*** (2.00 to 2.97) |
1.60*** (1.22 to 2.09) |
1.12 (0.53 to 2.36) |
2.14*** (1.58 to 2.90) |
1.42 (0.93 to 2.16) |
0.84 (0.22 to 3.16) |
2.60*** (2.00 to 3.39) |
1.76** (1.23 to 2.50) |
1.33 (0.52 to 3.38) |
| Psychosocial and material resources | |||||||||
| Marital status | |||||||||
| Widowed (ref) | |||||||||
| Currently married/living together | 1.12 (0.98 to 1.28) |
1.12 (0.98 to 1.28) |
1.29* (1.02 to 1.63) |
1.30 (1.03 to 1.64) |
1.06 (0.89 to 1.27) |
1.07 (0.90 to 1.27) |
|||
| Social activities participation | |||||||||
| No (ref) | |||||||||
| Yes | 0.85* (0.74 to 0.98) |
0.85* (0.74 to 0.97) |
1.03 (0.83 to 1.30) |
1.04 (0.83 to 1.30) |
0.77** (0.65 to 0.91) |
0.76** (0.63 to 0.90) |
|||
| Have someone trust or confide | |||||||||
| No (ref) | |||||||||
| Yes | 0.69*** (0.60 to 0.80) |
0.70*** (0.60 to 0.81) |
0.65*** (0.52 to 0.82) |
0.67*** (0.53 to 0.84) |
0.71*** (0.59 to 0.86) |
0.71*** (0.58 to 0.86) |
|||
| Feel able to manage situations | |||||||||
| Hardly ever (ref) | |||||||||
| Sometimes | 0.25*** (0.22 to 0.28) |
0.25*** (0.22 to 0.28) |
0.25*** (0.21 to 0.31) |
0.25*** (0.21 to 0.31) |
0.24*** (0.20 to 0.28) |
0.24*** (0.20 to 0.28) |
|||
| Most of the time | 0.12*** (0.09 to 0.15) |
0.12*** (0.09 to 0.15) |
0.12*** (0.09 to 0.16) |
0.11*** (0.08 to 0.16) |
0.11*** (0.08 to 0.15) |
0.12*** (0.09 to 0.16) |
|||
| Financial dependency | |||||||||
| No dependency (ref) | |||||||||
| Partial dependency | 1.07 (0.91 to 1.25) |
1.08 (0.92 to 1.26) |
1.05 (0.86 to 1.29) |
1.06 (0.86 to 1.30) |
1.03 (0.80 to 1.33) |
1.04 (0.81 to 1.35) |
|||
| Full dependency | 1.31*** (1.12 to 1.53) |
1.31** (1.12 to 1.53) |
1.57*** (1.26 to 1.95) |
1.58*** (1.26 to 1.97) |
1.11 (0.88 to 1.40) |
1.12 (0.89 to 1.42) |
|||
| Household wealth index | |||||||||
| Lowest (ref) | |||||||||
| Second | 0.83* (0.70 to 0.97) |
0.80* (0.68 to 0.95) |
0.77* (0.61 to 0.99) |
0.74* (0.58 to 0.96) |
0.88 (0.70 to 1.10) |
0.86 (0.68 to 1.08) |
|||
| Middle | 0.78** (0.65 to 0.94) |
0.73*** (0.61 to 0.88) |
0.97 (0.74 to 1.27) |
0.90 (0.68 to 1.19) |
0.68** (0.53 to 0.87) |
0.64*** (0.49 to 0.82) |
|||
| Fourth | 0.62*** (0.51 to 0.76) |
0.57*** (0.47 to 0.70) |
0.65** (0.48 to 0.87) |
0.60*** (0.45 to 0.82) |
0.63*** (0.48 to 0.83) |
0.57*** (0.43 to 0.76) |
|||
| Highest | 0.54*** (0.43 to 0.67) |
0.50*** (0.39 to 0.62) |
0.54*** (0.38 to 0.76) |
0.51*** (0.36 to 0.72) |
0.57*** (0.42 to 0.78) |
0.52*** (0.38 to 0.71) |
|||
| Other control variables | |||||||||
| Age | |||||||||
| 60-69 (ref) | |||||||||
| 70-79 | 1.20** (1.06 to 1.36) |
1.20** (1.06 to 1.36) |
1.14 (0.95 to 1.38) |
1.14 (0.95 to 1.38) |
1.25* (1.06 to 1.48) |
1.26** (1.06 to 1.49) |
|||
| 80+ | 1.24* (1.03 to 1.50) |
1.25* (1.04 to 1.51) |
1.11 (0.83 to 1.48) |
1.13 (0.84 to 1.51) |
1.31* (1.02 to 1.69) |
1.32* (1.03 to 1.70) |
|||
| Gender | |||||||||
| Men (ref) | |||||||||
| Women | 1.12 (0.95 to 1.32) |
1.14 (0.97 to 1.34) |
|||||||
| Education | |||||||||
| No schooling (ref) | |||||||||
| 1-4 years | 0.88 (0.75 to 1.04) |
0.88 (0.76 to 1.04) |
0.84 (0.66 to 1.08) |
0.84 (0.66 to 1.08) |
0.88 (0.70 to 1.09) |
0.88 (0.71 to 1.10) |
|||
| 5-7 years | 0.86 (0.73 to 1.01) |
0.86 (0.73–1.01) |
0.87 (0.69–1.11) |
0.87 (0.69–1.11) |
0.84 (0.67–1.06) |
0.85 (0.68–1.08) |
|||
| 8+ years | 0.59*** (0.50 to 0.69) |
0.60*** (0.51 to 0.71) |
0.52*** (0.42 to 0.66) |
0.53*** (0.42 to 0.67) |
0.64*** (0.50 to 0.83) |
0.66*** (0.51 to 0.85) |
|||
| Caste | |||||||||
| Scheduled tribe/Scheduled caste (ref) | |||||||||
| Other backward Caste | 0.91 (0.79 to 1.06) |
0.91 (0.79 to 1.06) |
0.99 (0.80 to 1.23) |
0.99 (0.79 to 1.23) |
0.86 (0.70 to 1.05) |
0.86 (0.70 to 1.05) |
|||
| Others | 1.05 (0.91 to 1.21) |
1.06 (0.92 to 1.22) |
1.06 (0.85 to 1.31) |
1.06 (0.86 to 1.32) |
1.05 (0.87 to 1.28) |
1.06 (0.87 to 1.29) |
|||
| Unknown | 1.09 (0.78 to 1.53) |
1.08 (0.77 to 1.52) |
1.23 (0.72 to 2.09) |
1.22 (0.72 to 2.08) |
1.03 (0.65 to 1.61) |
1.03 (0.65 to 1.62) |
|||
| Working status | |||||||||
| Not work (ref) | |||||||||
| Ever work but not now | 1.21* (1.02 to 1.42) |
1.23* (1.04 to 1.45) |
1.20 (0.59 to 2.45) |
1.20 (0.59 to 2.46) |
1.20 (0.99 to 1.46) |
1.22* (1.01 to 1.49) |
|||
| Ever work and now | 1.17 (0.96 to 1.42) |
1.19 (0.97 to 1.45) |
1.16 (0.56 to 2.41) |
1.15 (0.55 to 2.40) |
1.11 (0.85 to 1.45) |
1.16 (0.89 to 1.51) |
|||
| Self-reported health | |||||||||
| Excellent/very good/good (ref) | |||||||||
| Fair | 2.09*** (1.85 to 2.35) |
2.09*** (1.86 to 2.36) |
2.10*** (1.76 to 2.51) |
2.10*** (1.76 to 2.51) |
2.08*** (1.77 to 2.45) |
2.09*** (1.78 to 2.46) |
|||
| Poor | 3.83*** (3.24 to 4.52) |
3.84*** (3.25 to 4.54) |
4.56*** (3.50 to 5.94) |
4.55*** (3.49 to 5.93) |
3.47*** (2.78 to 4.33) |
3.50*** (2.80 to 4.36) |
|||
| Chronic disease | |||||||||
| No (ref) | |||||||||
| One type | 1.17* (1.03 to 1.34) |
1.17* (1.03 to 1.34) |
1.29* (1.06 to 1.58) |
1.29* (1.06 to 1.57) |
1.11 (0.93 to 1.32) |
1.11 (0.93 to 1.32) |
|||
| More than one types | 1.31*** (1.13 to 1.51) |
1.31*** (1.13 to 1.51) |
1.43** (1.14 to 1.78) |
1.44*** (1.15 to 1.80) |
1.23* (1.01 to 1.49) |
1.23* (1.01 to 1.49) |
|||
| Difficulty with ADLs | |||||||||
| No need for assistance (ref) | |||||||||
| Light need | 1.21 (0.92 to 1.60) |
1.22 (0.93 to 1.61) |
0.85 (0.55 to 1.31) |
0.85 (0.55 to 1.31) |
1.52* (1.06 to 2.19) |
1.53* (1.06 to 2.20) |
|||
| Heavy need | 1.83*** (1.31 to 2.56) |
1.84*** (1.32 to 2.58) |
2.75*** (1.51 to 5.00) |
2.79*** (1.54 to 5.08) |
1.44 (0.95 to 2.19) |
1.46 (0.96 to 2.21) |
|||
| Disability | |||||||||
| No disability (ref) | |||||||||
| Light | 1.55*** (1.35 to 1.78) |
1.54*** (1.34 to 1.77) |
1.27* (1.03 to 1.56) |
1.25* (1.02 to 1.54) |
1.79*** (1.49 to 2.16) |
1.79*** (1.48 to 2.16) |
|||
| Medium | 2.23*** (1.87 to 2.65) |
2.22*** (1.87 to 2.64) |
1.81*** (1.39 to 2.36) |
1.79*** (1.37 to 2.34) |
2.56*** (2.03 to 3.23) |
2.57*** (2.03 to 3.24) |
|||
| Heavy | 3.39*** (2.71 to 4.25) |
3.38*** (2.70 to 4.23) |
2.69*** (1.92 to 3.77) |
2.67*** (1.90 to 3.75) |
4.01*** (2.95 to 5.44) |
4.03*** (2.96 to 5.48) |
|||
| Living arrangement | |||||||||
| Alone (ref) | |||||||||
| Spouse only | 0.78 (0.60 to 1.03) |
0.78 (0.59 to 1.03) |
0.65 (0.37 to 1.13) |
0.66 (0.38 to 1.16) |
0.82 (0.57 to 1.17) |
0.81 (0.57 to 1.17) |
|||
| At least one child | 1.10 (0.87 to 1.40) |
1.10 (0.86 to 1.39) |
0.91 (0.53 to 1.56) |
0.93 (0.54 to 1.59) |
1.14 (0.86 to 1.50) |
1.14 (0.86 to 1.50) |
|||
| Others | 1.20 (0.89 to 1.61) |
1.19 (0.89 to 1.60) |
1.20 (0.66 to 2.20) |
1.22 (0.67 to 2.24) |
1.13 (0.79 to 1.60) |
1.13 (0.79 to 1.60) |
|||
| Residence | |||||||||
| Rural (ref) | |||||||||
| Urban | 0.90 (0.80 to 1.01) |
0.90 (0.80 to 1.01) |
0.77** (0.64 to 0.91) |
0.76** (0.64 to 0.91) |
0.99 (0.85 to 1.15) |
0.99 (0.84 to 1.15) |
|||
| State | |||||||||
| Himachal Pradesh (ref) | |||||||||
| Punjab | 0.60*** (0.48 to 0.74) |
0.60*** (0.48 to 0.75) |
0.61** (0.43 to 0.86) |
0.62** (0.44 to 0.87) |
0.56*** (0.42 to 0.75) |
0.56*** (0.42 to 0.75) |
|||
| West Bengal | 2.63*** (2.13 to 3.25) |
2.60*** (2.10 to 3.21) |
4.23*** (3.06 to 5.85) |
4.25*** (3.07 to 5.88) |
1.78*** (1.34 to 2.38) |
1.74*** (1.30 to 2.33) |
|||
| Odisha | 2.82*** (2.28 to 3.49) |
2.78*** (2.24 to 3.44) |
3.27*** (2.37 to 4.50) |
3.28*** (2.37 to 4.53) |
2.65*** (1.98 to 3.56) |
2.58*** (1.92 to 3.47) |
|||
| Maharashtra | 1.69*** (1.36 to 2.10) |
1.67*** (1.35 to 2.08) |
2.16*** (1.56 to 2.98) |
2.17*** (1.57 to 2.99) |
1.37* (1.01 to 1.85) |
1.34 (0.99 to 1.81) |
|||
| Kerala | 0.96 (0.76 to 1.20) |
0.95 (0.76 to 1.20) |
0.72 (0.50 to 1.04) |
0.73 (0.50 to 1.05) |
1.05 (0.78 to 1.41) |
1.03 (0.77 to 1.40) |
|||
| Tamil Nadu | 3.81*** (3.01 to 4.81) |
3.75*** (2.97 to 4.74) |
4.63*** (3.24 to 6.59) |
4.62*** (3.24 to 6.60) |
3.17*** (2.31 to 4.36) |
3.07*** (2.23 to 4.23) |
|||
| Abuse* second quintile | 1.38 (0.75 to 2.55) |
1.79 (0.68 to 4.72) |
1.32 (0.59 to 2.95) |
||||||
| Abuse* middle quintile | 2.90** (1.30 to 6.44) |
3.83* (1.07 to 13.69) |
2.72 (0.93 to 7.91) |
||||||
| Abuse* fourth quintile | 4.31*** (1.87 to 9.92) |
3.36 (0.93 to 12.18) |
5.93** (1.87 to 18.81) |
||||||
| Abuse* highest quintile | 4.47** (1.67 to 11.98) |
3.45 (0.76 to 15.74) |
5.61* (1.40 to 22.50) |
||||||
| Abuse* high education | 0.74 (0.32 to 1.70) |
0.65 (0.22 to 1.89) |
0.78 (0.17 to 3.51) |
||||||
| Abuse* have someone to trust | 0.87 (0.44 to 1.71) |
0.72 (0.22 to 1.89) |
0.90 (0.38 to 2.15) |
||||||
| Abuse* feel able to manage situations some time | 0.92 (0.54 to 1.58) |
1.26 (0.53 to2.98) |
0.80 (0.39 to 1.60) |
||||||
| Abuse* feel able to manage situations most time | 1.04 (0.42 to 2.54) |
2.43 (0.75 to 7.90) |
0.41 (0.10 to 1.78) |
||||||
| Constant | 0.66*** | 0.60* | 0.61* | 0.55*** | 0.51 | 0.52 | 0.77*** | 0.84 | 0.88 |
| Cox & Snell R2 | 0.008 | 0.327 | 0.328 | 0.005 | 0.341 | 0.342 | 0.011 | 0.317 | 0.319 |
| Nagelkerke R2 | 0.011 | 0.441 | 0.442 | 0.007 | 0.467 | 0.469 | 0.014 | 0.424 | 0.427 |
Source: Authors’ analysis of UNFPA Building Knowledge Base on Ageing in India 2011 survey.
Values in the brackets are 95% CIs.
*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.
GHQ-12, 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire; UNFPA, United Nations Population Fund.