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Typical absorption spectrum of carotenoids: lycopene at room temperature in n-hexane. Inset: a simplified energy diagram of carotenoids; the blue arrows represent absorption (Abs), which is forbidden for S0 → S1, green and red arrows represent internal conversion by non-radiative decay for S2 → S1 (IC1) and S1 → S0 (IC2), respectively. There is negligible fluorescence from S2 → S0, and no intersystem crossing to produce carotenoid triplet states.
