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Dementia diagnosis or another neurodegenerative disease
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Score ≤26 on the Mini–Mental State Examination
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Score of ≥6 on the Geriatric Depression Scale (Short Form)
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Inability to undertake cycling-based exercise due to neuromuscular and/or musculoskeletal limitations
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Inability to obtain medical clearance to participate in the exercise program
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History of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or bipolar disorder
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Subjects with untreated obstructive sleep apnea
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History of electroconvulsive therapy or serious head injury resulting in a prolonged period of unconsciousness
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History of alcohol abuse or dependence within 2 years of screening
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Participants with a history of cancer (other than skin or in situ prostate cancer) within the previous 5 years
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Any significant systemic illness or unstable medical condition
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Insulin-requiring diabetes or uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
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Uncontrolled hypertension (systolic BP > 170 or diastolic BP > 100 mmHg)
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Participants in whom magnetic resonance imaging is contraindicated including, but not limited to, those with a pacemaker, presence of metallic fragments near the eyes or spinal cord, or cochlear implant (dental fillings do not present a risk for magnetic resonance imaging).