Table.
Characteristics of included high-quality studies
| Site | Study design | Number of participants | Population | Age (years) | Exposure | Outcome | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Physical activity | |||||||
| Kinra, 2010 | India | Cross-sectional | 1983 | 1600 villages in 18 states | 20–69 | Socioeconomic status | Low physical activity; <1·69 MET |
| Gupta, 2003 | India | Cross-sectional | 573 | General population in Jaipur | NA | Education | Low physical activity; <30 min leisure time physical activity 3 times a week |
| Oanh, 2008 | Vietnam | Cross-sectional | 1776 | STEPS survey in Ho Chi Minh | 25–64 | Assets/education/income | Low physical activity; <600 MET min per week |
| Gupta, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 6198 | Middle-class areas of 11 cities | 18–75 | Education/occupation/socioeconomic status | Low physical activity; no regular work or leisure time physical activity |
| Dhungana, 2014 | Nepal | Cross-sectional | 406 | Rural community in Sindhuli | 20–50 | Education/socioeconomic status/caste | Low physical activity; <150 minutes moderate physical activity/week |
| Zeba, 2014 | Burkina Faso | Cross-sectional | 330 | Ouagadougou residents | 25–60 | Assets/education | Physical activity and sedentary time; means >3 h and <3 h MET, respectively |
| Reddy, 2007 | India | Cross-sectional | 19 969 | Industrial workers from 10 cities | 20–69 | Education | Leisure time physical activity |
| Singh, 1997 | India | Cross-sectional | 1767 | Two villages in rural north India | 25–64 | Socioeconomic status | Sedentary* |
| Alcohol | |||||||
| Bonu, 2005 | India | Cross-sectional | 22 685 | Inpatients from 1995 National Survey | >10 | Alcohol use | Poverty; borrowing or financial distress during hospital admission |
| Gupta, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 6198 | Middle-class areas of 11 cities | 18–75 | Education/occupation/socioeconomic status | Alcohol abuse |
| Samuel, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 2218 | Rural and urban southern India | 26–32 | Assets/education | Alcohol use |
| Hashibe, 2003 | India | Case-control | 47 773 | Adults in Kerala | >35 | Income/education/occupation | Alcohol use |
| Neufeld, 2005 | India | Cross-sectional | 471 143 | 1995 National Sample Survey | >10 | Poverty/caste/education | Alcohol use; regular use of any alcoholic beverage |
| Kinra, 2010 | India | Cross-sectional | 1983 | 1600 villages in 18 states | 20–69 | Socioeconomic status | Alcohol use; consumed >10 days per month over last 6 months |
| Dhungana, 2014 | Nepal | Cross-sectional | 406 | Rural community in Sindhuli | 20–50 | Education/socioeconomic status/caste | Alcohol use; used alcohol up to 30 days before interview |
| Subramanian, 2005 | India | Cross-sectional | 301 984 | 1998 National Family Health Survey | >18 | Assets/caste/education | Household member drinks alcohol |
| Diet | |||||||
| Hashibe, 2003 | India | Case-control | 47 773 | Adults in Kerala | >35 | Income/education/occupation | Daily vegetables, high intake of fruit |
| Gupta, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 6198 | Middle-class areas of 11 cities | 18–75 | Education/occupation/socioeconomic status | Less than two servings fruit and vegetables per day, more than 20 g fat per day |
| Ganesan, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 1261 | Urban diabetics from Chennai | >40 | Socioeconomic status | Low or high fibre diet; scored using a questionnaire |
| Kinra, 2010 | India | Cross-sectional | 1983 | 1600 villages in 18 states | 20–69 | Socioeconomic status | Low fruit and vegetable intake; <400 g/day |
| Dhungana, 2014 | Nepal | Cross-sectional | 406 | Rural community in Sindhuli | 20–50 | Education/socioeconomic status/caste | Low fruit and vegetable intake; <400 g/day |
| Zeba, 2014 | Burkina Faso | Cross-sectional | 330 | Ouagadougou residents | 25–60 | Assets/education | Unhealthy diet; fat/sugar/fibre/plant protein/complex carbohydrates |
| Agrawal, 2014a | India | Cross-sectional | 156 317 | National Family Health Survey | 20–49 | Caste/socioeconomic status | Non-vegetarian; eats meat, fish, milk, eggs, curd, dairy |
| Agrawal, 2014b | India | Cross-sectional | 156 317 | National Family Health Survey | 20–49 | Caste/wealth | Daily fish consumption |
| Tobacco | |||||||
| Bonu, 2005 | India | Cross-sectional | 22 685 | Inpatients from 1995 Nat. Survey | >10 | Tobacco use | Poverty; borrowing or financial distress during hospitalisation |
| Hashibe, 2003 | India | Case-control | 47 773 | Adults in Kerala | >35 | Income/education/occupation | Smoking, tobacco chewing |
| Corsi, 2014 | India | Cross-sectional | 4534 | 20 villages in Andhra Pradesh | >20 | Income/education | Current smoker, ever smoker |
| Kinra, 2010 | India | Cross-sectional | 1983 | 1600 villages in 18 states | 20–69 | Socioeconomic status | Daily smoker at any time in the last 6 months |
| Neufeld, 2005 | India | Cross-sectional | 471 143 | 1995 National Sample Survey | >10 | Poverty/caste/education | Regular smoker, regularly chews tobacco |
| Gupta, 2003 | India | Cross-sectional | 573 | General population in Jaipur | NA | Education | Past or present use of any tobacco product |
| Singh, 2000 | India | Cross-sectional | 1767 | Two villages in rural north India | 25–64 | Socioeconomic status | Uses tobacco more than once per week |
| Gupta, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 6198 | Middle-class areas of 11 cities | 18–75 | Education/occupation/socioeconomic status | Daily use of a tobacco product |
| Reddy, 2007 | India | Cross-sectional | 19 969 | Industrial workers from 10 cities | 20–69 | Education | Use of any tobacco product in previous 30 days |
| Singh, 2007 | India | Cross-sectional | 2222 | Residents of Moradabad | 25–64 | Socioeconomic status | Use of any tobacco product |
| Samuel, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 2218 | Rural and urban southern India | 26–32 | Assets/education | Current tobacco user |
| Gupta, 2015 | India | Cross-sectional | 6198 | Middle-class areas of 11 cities | >20 | Education | Quit for >1 year having used tobacco for >1 year previously |
| Narayan, 1996 | India | Cross-sectional | 13 558 | Residents of Delhi | 25–64 | Education/occupation | Current smoker or has smoked >100 times in the past |
| Rani, 2003 | India | Cross-sectional | 334 553 | 1998 National Family Health Survey | >15 | Wealth/education/caste | Smokes, chews tobacco |
| Heck, 2012 | Bangladesh | Cross-sectional | 19 934 | Married Bangladeshi adults | 18–75 | Education | Betel quid use |
| Dhungana, 2014 | Nepal | Cross-sectional | 406 | Rural community in Sindhuli | 20–50 | Education/socioeconomic status/caste | Smoking until last 30 days before interview |
| Bovet, 2002 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | 9254 | Residents of Dar es Salaam | 25–64 | Wealth/education | Smokes one or more cigarettes per day |
| Minh, 2007 | Vietnam | Cross-sectional | 1984 | 2005 STEPS survey of Bavi district | 25–64 | Education/socioeconomic status | Smoker |
| Tonstad, 2013 | Cambodia | Cross-sectional | 5592 | 2006 National Tobacco Survey | >18 | Education/income/occupation | Quit; not used tobacco for >2 years among ever users |
| Ali, 2006 | Pakistan | Cross-sectional | 411 | Men from rural Sindh province | >18 | Education/Income | Has smoked >100 cigarettes |
| Hosseinpoor, 2012 | 28 LLMICs | Cross-sectional | 213 807 | 2003 World Health Survey | >18 | Socioeconomic status | Daily or occasional tobacco smoker |
| Jena, 2012 | India | Cross-sectional | 69 296 | 2009 Global Tobacco Survey data | >15 | Occupation/education | Hardcore smoker† |
| Kishore, 2013 | India, Thailand, and Bangladesh | Cross-sectional | 92 491 | 2009 Global Adult Tobacco Survey | >15 | Education | Hardcore smoker† |
MET=Metabolic Equivalent of Task. LLMIC=low-income and lower-middle-income countries.
*
Walks less than 14·5 km, less than 20 flights of stairs, or does no moderate activity 5 days per week.
†
Hardcore smoker is defined as someone who currently smokes daily, with no quit attempt in last 12 months or whose last quit was for less than 24 h; no intention to quit in next 12 months or not interested in quitting first smoke within 30 min of waking; and who has knowledge of harms. High-quality survey findings and findings for physical activity, alcohol, diet, and tobacco are in the appendix.