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. 2017 Nov 8;7:15102. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-14531-5

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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The spontaneous rupture of bubbles is known to cause damage to cells grown in bioreactors. (a) Immediately after rupture, capillary waves travel down the sides of the bubble in approximately t = 571 μs for a bubble of radius R = 0.5 mm. (b) Bubbles are commonly injected directly near the base of the bioreactors to continually oxygenate the cells and remove excess carbon dioxide. (c) Past numerical studies have concluded that the smallest bubbles tend to produce the highest levels of overall maximum energy dissipation rate (EDR_max). Mammalian CHO cells exposed to EDR levels exceeding values ranging from 10⁶ to 10⁸ W/m³ (hatched region) exhibit a lethal response (necrosis, including lactate dehydrogenase release).