Table 1.

All parameter values used for the simulation experiments

$d_{\mathrm{reflex}}$	$30\mathrm{ms}$	Spinal stretch reflex time delay
$d_{\mathrm{brain}}$	$120\mathrm{ms}$	Time delay for sensory estimation in the brain
${\mathit{\alpha }}_E$	$12{\mathrm{rad}}^{-1}$	Stretch reflex form parameter
$\mathit{\rho }$	$0.01\mathrm{rad}$	Co-contraction command
$\mathit{\mu }$	$0.1\mathrm{s}$	Stretch reflex velocity gain
${\mathit{\tau }}_m$	$15\mathrm{ms}$	Time constant of the calcium kinetics low-pass filter
${\mathit{\alpha }}_{\mathit{\eta }}$	$5{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$	Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process inverse correlation time
${\mathit{\sigma }}_{\mathit{\theta }}$	$0.002\mathrm{rad}$	Muscle spindle activation noise (position)
${\mathit{\sigma }}_{\dot{\mathit{\theta }}}$	$0.005{\mathrm{rad}\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$	Muscle spindle activation noise strength (velocity)
${\mathit{\sigma }}_{\dot{p}}$	$0.007/0.01{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$	Head velocity estimation noise strength (EO/EC)
${\mathit{\sigma }}_{\ddot{p}}$	$0.03/0.032{\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}}^{-2}$	Head acceleration estimation noise strength (EO/EC)
${\mathit{\sigma }}_o$	$0.025/0.032\mathrm{rad}$	Trunk orientation estimation noise strength (EO/EC)
${\mathit{\sigma }}_{\dot{\mathit{\lambda }}}$	$0.001{\mathrm{rad}\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$	Neural processing noise
${\mathit{\sigma }}_m$	$0.01\mathrm{rad}$	Signal-dependent motor noise
${\mathit{\alpha }}_{\dot{p}}$	$12{\mathrm{rad}}^{-1}{\mathrm{s}}^{-2}$	Head velocity gain
${\mathit{\alpha }}_o$	$40{\mathrm{rad}}^{-1}{\mathrm{s}}^{-3}$	Trunk orientation gain