Table 1.
Summary of applications of 3D cell culture with reference to organ‐on‐a‐chip technology, 3D cellular aggregates and tissue models for the development and characterization of nanoparticles
| Tissue engineering: Organ‐on‐a‐chip technology and applications | |||
| Organ‐on‐chip | Cells used | Applications | References |
| Lung‐on‐Chip | Alveolar epithelial and Endothelial cells | Responses to bacteria and cytokines; toxicity study of silica nanoparticles | 87, 88, 89 |
| Intestine‐on‐Chip | Enterocytes, Goblet cells | Absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination and toxicity studies; microscale analog of the GI tract | 90, 91, 92 |
| Liver‐on‐Chip | Hepatocytes, Endothelial cells, Stellar cells, Kupffer cells, Fibroblasts | Maintained phenotypic functions and simulated morphology of lobules; toxicity testing | 93, 94, 95 |
| Tumor‐on‐Chip | Tumor Spheroids | HTS screening of single and combinatorial arrays | 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 |
| Vessels‐on‐Chip | Endothelial and Smooth Muscle cells | Growth of microvasculature; studying the effects of chemokines | 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 |
| Body‐on‐Chip | Slices of whole organs | Studying effects of drugs on multiple organ systems | 89, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110 |
| 3D culture of cells and their applications | |||
| Cells | Features and studies | References | |
| Cardiac | Enhanced cardiomyogenic differentiation; extended study of phenotype; morphology, and cellular viability | 111 | |
| Liver | Maintained phenotypic quality of liver cells; predictive in‐vivo toxicity | 69, 112 | |
| Stem | Controlled differentiation due to precise stimuli; migration and morphological change studies | 85, 111, 113 | |
| Neural | Extended viability with a perfusion of oxygenated media; electrophysiological, viability, and biosensor studies | 114, 115 | |
| Cancer | Invasion and migration studies; more responsive drug study mimicking 3D microenvironments | 46, 82, 116, 117 | |
| 3D tissue models for nanoparticles’ development and characterization | |||
| 3D tissue models | Major studies and applications | References | |
| Blood vessels | Interaction of injected nanoparticles in systemic circulation; endocytosis and shear‐responsiveness of particles; targeting efficiency | 114, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127 | |
| Lungs | Alveolar‐capillary interface model with mechanical breathing motion; translocation and toxicity of silica nanoparticles | 89, 128, 129 | |
| Liver | Primary hepatocytes‐based 3D spheroidal platform; high throughput clinical screening and metabolic studies of nanoparticles; toxicity studies | 69, 94, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137 | |
| Tumor | 3D tumor structure with dynamic flow conditions; influence of size and surface modification of nanoparticles on transport, penetration, and accumulation | 138, 139, 140 | |
| Heart | 3D cardiomyocytes‐based cell sheets with contractile functionality; real‐time calcium dynamics in hypoxic conditions | 141, 142, 143 | |