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. 2017 Sep 1;46(8):749–771. doi: 10.1007/s00249-017-1250-6

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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Fig. 11 — NP toxicity in relation to internalization mechanism. a NPs entering the cells by energy-dependent processes (e.g., clathrin, caveolin, or lipid raft-related endocytosis) are directed via endosomes to lysosomes, where the acidic pH triggers the LETH effect, with enhanced release of toxic ions (e.g., Au^1+/3+). This effect is less important for freely diffusing NPs. b Correlation between AuNP surface morphology and cell viability. c Correlation between morphology and production of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). [Adapted from (Sabella et al. 2014). Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry]