Table 2. Summary of the available non-valvular bronchoscopic approaches to PAL management described in case series of ≥5 patients. Data from references (35,36,41,42,52,53,61,64,66,71,74,75,81).
| Intervention | Type of bronchoscopy | Predominant fistula etiology | Number of series [cumulative patients] | Representative success rates (%)a |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Devices | ||||
| Spigots | Flexible | Non-surgical | 2 [81] | 78–86 |
| Spigots + blood patch | Flexible | Emphysema | 1 [9] | 77 |
| Amplatzer™ occluders | Flexible | Surgical | 1 [10] | 82 |
| Metallic stents | Rigid | Surgical | 2 [14] | 100 |
| Tissue adhesives | ||||
| Cyanoacrylates | Flexible | Surgical | 2 [29] | 70–89 |
| Hemostatic agents | ||||
| Fibrin glue (Tisseel®) | Rigid | Surgical | 1 [29] | 55 |
| Hydrogel (Coseal®) | Flexible | Non-surgical | 1 [22] | 86 |
| Submucosal injections | ||||
| Polidocanol (Aethoxysclerol®) | Flexible | Surgical | 1 [35] | 66 |
| Silver nitrate | Flexible | Surgical | 1 [17] | 94 |
| Thermal therapy | ||||
| Nd:YAG laser | Flexible | Surgical | 1 [8] | 50 |
a, percentages reflect rates of complete cessation of leak, except for spigots wherein leak reduction is also included among the successes.