Table 2. Causes of massive hemoptysis.

Infectious

Mycobacteria

Fungal infections (mycetomas)

Necrotizing pneumonia and lung abscess (Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Actinomyces)

Bacterial endocarditis with septic emboli

Parasitic (paragonimiasis, hydatid cyst)

Neoplastic

Bronchogenic carcinoma

Endobronchial tumors (carcinoid, adenoid cystic carcinoma)

Pulmonary metastases

Sarcoma

Pulmonary

Bronchiectasis (including cystic fibrosis)

Chronic bronchitis

Alveolar hemorrhage and underlying causes

Diffuse alveolar damage

Cardiac/pulmonary vascular

Pulmonary artery aneurysm (rasmussen aneurysm, mycotic, arteritis)

Bronchial artery aneurysm

Pulmonary infarct (embolism)

Pulmonary hypertension

Congenital cardiac or pulmonary malformations

Airway-vascular fistulae

Arteriovenous malformations

Mitral stenosis

Left-ventricular failure

Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease

Vasculitis/collagen vascular disease

Granulomatosis with polyangiitis

Goodpasture’s syndrome

Behçet’s disease

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Essential mixed cryoglobulinemia

Henoch-Schonlein purpura

Mixed connective tissue disease

Progressive systemic sclerosis

Rheumatoid arthritis

Systemic necrotizing vasculitis

Immune complex associated glomerulonephritis

Pauci-immune glomerulonephritis

Hematologic

Coagulopathy (congenital, acquired or iatrogenic)

Platelet disorders

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

Drugs and toxins

Penicillamine

Solvents

Crack cocaine

Trimellitic anhydride

Bevacizumab

Isocyanates

Nitrofurantoin

Trauma

Catheter-induced PA rupture

Blunt or penetrating chest injury

Transtracheal procedures

Iatrogenic secondary to interventional pulmonology procedures

Bronchoscopic biopsy

Miscellaneous

Cryptogenic

Endometriosis

Lymphangiolyomyomatosis

Broncholithiasis

Foreign body aspiration

Lung transplantation

Tuberous sclerosis

Idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis

PA, pulmonary artery.