Table 1.

Main characteristics of two categories of wild forest products in the Netherlands

Production system	Biological characteristics	Characteristics of production areas	Main cultural values involved	Institutional characteristics
Meat production from naturalistic grazing	Back-bred forefathers of livestock such as Scottish Highlands, Heck cattle and Exmoor pony reflecting traditional wilderness species	Conservation areas in which autonomous ecological processes are stimulated. Wild meat as by-product from population management to prevent overstocking	Ecologically-oriented values in respect of stimulating natural authenticity and autonomy as well as improved ecological functioning	Management by nature conservation organisation with the aim to improve ecological processes. Marketing by niche market organisations
	Ancient livestock varieties such as heath cows, regional breeds of sheep and forest pigs	Traditional half-natural livestock grazing environments	Combination of ecologically oriented values in respect to stimulating improved ecological functioning and cultural heritage values in respect of conserving traditional agrobiodiversity	Management by joint nature and heritage conservation oriented organisations Marketing by niche market organisations
Collection of forest food plants	Spontaneously growing food plants	Appropriate forest ecological niches	Experiential values in respect of actively interacting with nature by gathering wild food plants and tasting nature	Self collection by consumers stimulated by civil society organisations propagating use of nature food and health products
	Traditional varieties of historically horticulturalized species	Often peri-urban forest areas that have been enriched by fruit and nut producing species	Experiential values in respect of actively interacting with nature by being involved in the collaborative production of forest foods from non-artificialized environments	Community-based and collaborative management arrangements