TABLE 5.
Associations of maternal hemoglobin concentration and iron status with pregnancy outcomes in Ghana, Malawi, and Bangladesh [unpublished data (6–8)]1
| Duration of gestation |
Birth weight |
LAZ |
HCZ |
|||||||||
| Ghana | Malawi | Bangladesh | Ghana | Malawi | Bangladesh | Ghana | Malawi | Bangladesh | Ghana | Malawi | Bangladesh | |
| Early pregnancy | ||||||||||||
| Hemoglobin | + | + | + | o | + | o | o | + | o | o | (+) | o |
| Higher iron status (lower ZPP) | o | + | NA | o | o | NA | o | (+) | NA | o | o | NA |
| Higher iron status (lower sTfR) | o | + | o | o | + | o | (−) | + | o | o | + | o |
| Higher iron status (higher SF) | NA | NA | + | NA | NA | (−) | NA | NA | − | NA | NA | o |
| Late pregnancy | ||||||||||||
| Hemoglobin | Not linear | o | o | o | o | o | o | o | o | o | o | o |
| Higher iron status (lower ZPP) | o | + | NA | (−) | o | NA | (−) | o | NA | o | o | NA |
| Higher iron status (lower sTfR) | o | (+) | o | − | o | − | − | o | − | (−) | o | − |
| Higher iron status (higher SF) | NA | NA | − | NA | NA | − | NA | NA | − | NA | NA | − |
1
+ indicates a positive association, P < 0.05; (+) indicates a marginally significant positive association, 0.05 ≥ P < 0.10; − indicates a negative association, P < 0.05; (−) indicates a marginally significant negative association, 0.05 ≥ P < 0.10; o indicates no association. HCZ, head-circumference-for-age z score; LAZ, length-for-age z score; NA, not available (the relation was not examined); SF, serum ferritin; sTfR, soluble transferrin receptor; ZPP, zinc protoporphyrin.