Table 1. . Summary of studies in which specific methods are used to enhance antigen presentation.

Strategy to enhance antigen presentation or immunogenicity	Type	Tumor models	Mechanism of antigen enhancement
VLPs and particulate delivery	Viral mimics, exosomes [33–36], nanoparticulate delivery [38]	Breast, B16 melanoma, B16-OVA	Increased uptake and cross-presentation within MHC class I
Endosomal antigen escape	pH responsive polymers [39–45]	OVA, B16-OVA	Improved antigen loading onto MHC
Production of ROS	Lysosomal rupture, trans-RA, cationic liposomes [46–49]	B16	Activation of APCs and increased MHC expression
Protein modification: oxidation	HOCl cell treatment [59–61]	B16-OVA, prostate, ovarian	Aldehyde-modified side chains promote uptake and presentation
Protein modification: heat shock	High-temperature incubation [62,63]	Glioblastoma	Increased expression of heat-shock proteins
TLR agonists and adjuvant delivery	TLR2 [91], TLR4 [81,92,93], TLR7/8 [85–87], TLR9 [82–86,90], complement proteins [97], cytokines [100,101]	Breast, ovarian, prostate	Activation and maturation of APCs, cytokine expression
Physical size of delivery platform	<200 nm, 200–800 nm, 1.0 μm+ [18,37]	B16-OVA. HPV/cervical	Efficient trafficking to lymph nodes and uptake by APCs

APC: Antigen-presenting cell; HOCl: Hypochlorous acid; OVA: Ovalbumin; RA: Retinoic acid; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; TLR: Toll-like receptor; VLP: Virus-like particle.