Table 2.
Examples of symbiotic interactions between different microorganisms for exogenous supply of vitamins
| Association | Algae | Bacterium/fungus | Intermediaries from algae | Intermediaries from bacterium/fungus | Vitamin concentration | Reactions carried by the vitamin | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mutualism and commensalism | Porphyridium purpureum | Halomonas sp. | Carbon source and algal extracts | Vitamin B12 | 10 ng/l | – | [16] |
| Thalassiosira pseudonana | Ruegeria pomeroyi DSS-3 | Dihydroxypropanesulfonate-3-dehydrogenase (DHPS; 3.3 mM) as carbon source | Vitamin B12 | – | DNA Synthesis by enzyme methionine synthase | [56] | |
| Lobomonas rostrata | Mesorhizobium loti MAF | Algal photosynthate | Vitamin B12 | 60 ng/l | Inorganic carbon assimilation by enzyme methylmalonyl COA mutase | [80] | |
| Chlamydomonas reinhardtii CC23 | Mesorhizobium loti (heterotrophic bacteria) | No exchange of photosynthate | Vitamin B12 | 100 ng/l | – | [41] | |
| Eutreptiella sp. | Ectobiotic bacteria (Marinobacter) and endobiotic bacteria | Bacteria uses host cells to reproduce | Vitamin B12 and growth promoting factors | 1 mg/l | – | [82] | |
| Auxenochlorella protothecoides | Escherichia coli | Algal photosynthate | Vitamin B1, 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine (HMP) and degradation products | 20 ng/l | Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex used for carbohydrate metabolism and amino acid synthesis | [27] | |
| Ostreococcus lucimarinus CCE9901 | Pseudoalteromonas sp. TW7 | Algal photosynthate | Vitamin B1 and modify vitamin analogs | 77.7 ng/l | – | [63] | |
| Coccomyxa sp. | Peltigera aphthosa | Host tissue | Biotin | 7.2 m µg per milligram | Cofactor in carbon dioxide metabolism in various carboxylases enzymes | [76–78] | |
| Parasitism | Chlorella vulgaris | Exophiala sp. (fungus) | Host | Perform algicidal activity | – | – | [89] |
| Emiliania huxleyi | Phaeobacter gallaeciensis | Mutual/host | Roseobacticides A and B | Roseobacticides A and B, tropodithietic acid (TDA), thiotropocin (safeguarded the algal cells) and phenylacetic acid (enhanced algal growth) | [85] | ||
| Prorocentrum minimum | Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL-12 | Mutual/host | Vitamin B12 and roseobacticides | – | – | [79] |
The interactions between the microorganisms range from specific mutualism to commensalism to parasitism depending upon the species and environmental factors of the mini ecosystem. A typical example of mutualistic symbiosis occurred between a bacterial species, Halomonas sp. and marine red microalgal species, Porphyridium purpureum wherein the bacterial species supplies cobalamin to the microalgal associate in exchange for fixed carbon