Table 1.
Immune cells-derived EVs-based immune-theranostic applications.
| Cell source | Composition | Engineering strategy | Biogenesis mechanism | Target cell/diseases | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diagnostic markers | |||||
| Tregs | EVs | Increasing Treg-EVs | Transplantation evaluation | [159] | |
| CD4+/CD8+ Tc | EVs | Increasing CD4+/CD8+ T-EVs | Chronic hepatitis C | [160,161] | |
| iNK Tc | EVs | Increasing iNKT-EVs | Liver inflammatory | [160,161] | |
| MØ/monocytes | EVs | Increasing MØ/monocytes-EVs | Liver inflammatory | [160,161] | |
| Therapeutic uses | |||||
| DC DC DC |
HIV-1 Ag genetic material MBP/miR-219 |
siRNA against target gene EE stimulated |
AP deliver gene deliver MBP/miR-219 |
HIV-1 infection Alzheimer’s disease brain Trauma/neurodegenerative disorders |
[162] [163] [164] |
| DC DC |
IL-4/FasL/IDO EVs |
Modified gene | Deliver IL-4/FasL/IDO increasing IDO/Treg Decreasing Ab |
CIA EAMG |
[166–168] [170] |
| DC | EVs | Activating CD4+ T | MI | [171] | |
| DC | EVs | IFN-γ stimulated | Boosting NK cell | NSCLC | [172,173] |
| MØ | Modified genetic material | Plasmid encoding | Deliver gene | Parkinson’s disease | [174,175] |
| Treg | EVs | Autologous Treg cells | Immunosuppressive effects | Renal allograft transplantation | [123,159] |
| NK | Cytotoxic proteins | IL-15 stimulated | Deliver cytotoxic proteins | Haematologic malignancy Solid tumour |
[58,59] [129,157] |
| Vaccination | |||||
| DC | Specific antigen | TLR-3 ligand poly(I:C) | Deliver antigens | Human melanoma | [176] |
| Tc | OVA antigen | Counteract T-cell anergy | Chronic infection | [177] | |
|
DC |
Specific antigen |
Convert CTL exhaustion Polyclonal CD4+Tc |
Viral diseases |
[178,179] |
|
Tc: T cell; AP: antigen presentation; MBP: myelin basic protein; EE: environmental enrichment; CIA: collagen-induced arthritis; EAMG: experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis; MI: myocardial infarction; NSCLC: non-small cell lung cancer; LCL: lymphoblastic cell lines; OVA: ovalbumin.