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. 2017 Dec 4;3:17061. doi: 10.1038/cddiscovery.2017.61

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Copyright © 2017 The Author(s)

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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HIV-1, inflammation, oxidative stress, and ARV drugs induce astrocyte mitochondrial depolarization. Astrocytes untreated (a) and DMSO (vehicle; (i)) were treated for 24 h with H₂O₂ (200 μM) (b), IL-1β (20 ng/ml) (c), HIV-1 (p24 20 ng/ml) (d), TNF-α (50 ng/ml) (e), IL-1β+HIV-1+TNF-α (f), abacavir (4 μM) (g), and Th (200 nM) (h). Live-cell imaging was performed using calcein/cobalt chloride quenching assay to monitor mPTP opening. Calcein (green) colocalization with MTR (red) represents closed mPTP (arrow; green, yellow), while loss of green fluorescence represents mPTP opening (arrowhead, red). Representative images from three donors are shown. Original magnification ×200 Th, Thapsigargin.