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. 2017 Nov 17;18(11):2435. doi: 10.3390/ijms18112435

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© 2017 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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TGF-β isoforms, TGF-β receptors; TGF-β intracellular signaling pathways. TGF-β: transforming growth factor β; FAK: focal adhesion kinase; TAK: TGF-β-activated kinase; MKK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; p38: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases; PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; Akt: Protein kinase B; mTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin; Ras: Ras protein; Raf: Raf protein; MEK: MAPK/ERK kinase; ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinases; Smad: Smad protein.