Table 2.
Suggested protozoan hosts of L. pneumophila.
| Protozoa | Environment source | Identification method used | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acanthamoebidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Acanthamoeba spp. | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Kurtz et al., 1982 | |
| Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 | ||
| Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Marciano-Cabral et al., 2010; Valster et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rohr et al., 1998; Steinert et al., 1998 | |
| Industrial water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy; Sequence analysis | Scheikl et al., 2014 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007; Hsu et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| Acanthamoeba castellanii | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Acanthamoeba hatchetti | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Hospital water network | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Breiman et al., 1990 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Hsu et al., 2015 | |
| Acanthamoeba jacobsi | Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Hsu et al., 2011 |
| Acanthamoeba lenticulata | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Acanthamoeba palestinensis | Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Kao et al., 2013 |
| Acanthamoeba polyphaga | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Cooling towers | Not specified | Rowbotham, 1986 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Hsu et al., 2009 | |
| Amoebidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Aspidiscidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Bodonidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Cashia limacoides | Cooling towers | Not specified | Rowbotham, 1986 |
| Centropyxis sp. | Natural water systems | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rasch et al., 2016 |
| Ciliophrya sp. | Natural water systems | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rasch et al., 2016 |
| Colpodidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Comandonia operculata | Hospital water network | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Breiman et al., 1990 |
| Cyclidium spp. | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Barbaree et al., 1986 |
| Diphylleia rotans | Sewage treatment systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 |
| Echinamoeba spp. | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rohr et al., 1998 |
| Echinamoeba exudans | Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2011 |
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Fields et al., 1989 | |
| Echinamoeba thermarum | Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2011 |
| Cooling towers | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 | |
| Euglypha sp. | Natural water systems | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rasch et al., 2016 |
| Filamoeba nolandi | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Breiman et al., 1990 |
| Flamella balnearia | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Hartmannellidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Hartmannella spp. | Cooling towers | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 |
| Identified morphologically via microscopy | Kurtz et al., 1982 | ||
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Fields et al., 1989; Breiman et al., 1990; Nahapetian et al., 1991 | |
| Natural water systems | FISH; Identified morphologically via microscopy | Zbikowska et al., 2014 | |
| Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 | ||
| Hartmannella cantabrigiensis | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rowbotham, 1986; Fields et al., 1989 |
| Learamoeba waccamawenis | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Mayorella spp. | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Steinert et al., 1998 |
| Naegleria spp. | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Barbaree et al., 1986 |
| Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 | ||
| Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 | |
| Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Marciano-Cabral et al., 2010; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Nahapetian et al., 1991; Rohr et al., 1998 | |
| Industrial water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Scheikl et al., 2014 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007; Hsu et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| FISH; Identified morphologically via microscopy | Zbikowska et al., 2014 | ||
| Naegleria australiensis | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Huang and Hsu, 2010 | |
| Naegleria fowleri | Thermal saline bath | FISH; Identified morphologically via microscopy | Zbikowska et al., 2013 |
| Natural water systems | FISH; Identified morphologically via microscopy | Zbikowska et al., 2014 | |
| Naegleria gruberi | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Hsu et al., 2015 | |
| Naegleria lovaniensis | Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Huang and Hsu, 2010; Kao et al., 2013 |
| Naegleria pagei | Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Huang and Hsu, 2010 |
| Neoparamoeba spp. | Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2011 |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 | |
| Oxytricha bifaria | Natural water systems | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rasch et al., 2016 |
| Paravahlkampfia ustianaa (Vahlkampfia ustiana) | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Breiman et al., 1990 |
| Pleuronematidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Rhinosporidium sp. | Tap water system | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 |
| Saccamoeba spp. | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rohr et al., 1998 |
| Singhamoeba horticola | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Stenamoeba spp. | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Stenamoeba limacina | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2014 |
| Stylonychia mytilus | Natural water systems | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rasch et al., 2016 |
| Tetrahymenidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Tetrahymena spp. | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Barbaree et al., 1986 |
| Tetramitus spp. | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Tetramitus entericab (Vahlkampfia enterica) | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
| Vahlkampfia spp. | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2014 |
| Cooling towers | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 | |
| Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Marciano-Cabral et al., 2010 | |
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Breiman et al., 1990; Rohr et al., 1998; Steinert et al., 1998 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007; Hsu et al., 2011 | |
| Vahlkampfia avara | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Vannella spp. | Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rohr et al., 1998 |
| Vannella platypodia | Cooling towers | Not specified | Rowbotham, 1986 |
| Vermamoeba vermiformisc (Hartmannella vermiformis) | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013, 2014 |
| Drinking water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| Hospital water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Rowbotham, 1986; Fields et al., 1989; Breiman et al., 1990; Rohr et al., 1998 | |
| Sequence analysis | Thomas et al., 2006 | ||
| Industrial water networks | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Scheikl et al., 2014 | |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Hsu et al., 2011, 2015; Ji et al., 2014 | |
| Sequence analysis | Kao et al., 2013 | ||
| Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 | ||
| Tap water systems | Sequence analysis | Valster et al., 2010 | |
| Vexillifera bacillipedes | Cooling towers | Not specified | Rowbotham, 1986 |
| Vorticellidae | Cooling towers | Identified morphologically via microscopy | Yamamoto et al., 1992 |
| Willaertia spp. | Cooling towers | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 |
| Natural water systems | Sequence analysis | Declerck et al., 2007 | |
| Willaertia magna | Compost facilities | Sequence analysis | Conza et al., 2013 |
a
Vahlkampfia ustiana has been renamed Paravahlkampfia ustiana.
b
Vahlkampfia enterica has been renamed Tetramitus enterica.
c
Hartmannella vermiformis has been renamed Vermamoeba vermiformis (Smirnov et al., 2011).