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Fluorescent voltage indicators. Numerous strategies for optically sensing voltage changes in living cells exist. Small molecule fluorophore platforms (upper panels) include electrochromic dyes (a) and photo-induced electron transfer (PeT) approaches (b). Genetically encoded strategies (lower panels) include fusions of fluorescent proteins to voltage-sensing domains (c), use of opsins (d), and hybrid opsin – fluorescent protein pairs (e). [note: single column figure]
