Figure 3.

Effect of costs of defense and offense. Effect on phase relationships (left three columns) and the most significant component correlation (right), E _x ^(y) − E _u ^(y) (impact of prey biomass and defense on the net per capita predator growth rate; see Table 2). 1a and 1c refer to the parameter combinations for which the dynamics are shown in Fig. 1a and c, respectively. First column: phase lag between prey biomass and predator biomass; second column: phase lag between effective prey biomass and predator biomass; third column: phase lag between prey biomass and effective prey biomass. White: stable equilibrium; grey: extinction of predator. (a) Standard parameters for cost analysis; (b) standard parameters except K = 2 (high carrying capacity); (c) standard parameters except h = 2 (long handling time).