Table 1.

Imbalanced intraparenchymal-blood glutamate concentration gradient in various brain insults.

Brain insults	Research in humans/animals	Intraparenchymal glutamate	Blood glutamate	Reference
Acute brain injury
SAH	Humans/rats	↑		Nilsson et al., 1996; Bell et al., 2014
AIS	Humans/rats	↑	↑	Umemura et al., 1996; Castillo et al., 1997; Bonova et al., 2013
TBI	Humans/mice	↑	↑	Vespa et al., 1998; Li et al., 2008; Dai et al., 2013; Bai et al., 2017
ICH	Rabbits	↑		Qureshi et al., 2003
Chronic disease
PD	Humans	↑/↓	N/↑	Iwasaki et al., 1992; Mally et al., 1997
AD	Humans	↑/↓	↑	Pomara et al., 1992; Miulli et al., 1993; Kuiper et al., 2000; Fayed et al., 2011
Epilepsy	Humans/mice	↑/↓		Smeland et al., 2013; Cavus et al., 2016
MS	Humans	↑	↑	Tisell et al., 2013; Azevedo et al., 2014; Al Gawwam and Sharquie, 2017
Schizophrenia	Humans	↓	↑	Song et al., 2014; Rowland et al., 2016

AIS, acute ischaemic stroke; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; ICH, intracerebral hemorrhage; MS, multiple sclerosis; PD, Parkinson’s Disease; SAH, subarachnoid hemorrhage; TBI, traumatic brain injury.